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Amid intensifying anti-Jewish measures and the 1938 Kristallnacht ("Night of Broken Glass") pogrom, Johanna's family decided to leave Germany. They obtained visas for Albania, crossed into Italy, and sailed in 1939. They remained in Albania under the Italian occupation and, after Italy surrendered in 1943, under German occupation. The family was liberated after a battle between the Germans and Albanian partisans in December 1944.
View an animated map describing the voyage of the St. Louis and the fate of its passengers, Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany in May-June, 1939.
Protestant pastor Martin Niemöller emerged as an opponent of Adolf Hitler and was imprisoned in camps for 7 years. Learn about the complexities surrounding his beliefs.
In May 1939, the German transatlantic liner St. Louis sailed from Germany to Cuba. Most of the passengers were Jews fleeing Nazi Germany. Learn more about the voyage.
Gerda and her parents obtained visas to sail to Cuba on the "St. Louis" in May 1939. When the ship arrived in Havana harbor, most of the refugees were denied entry and the ship had to return to Europe. Gerda and her parents disembarked in Belgium. In May 1940, Germany attacked Belgium. Gerda and her mother escaped to Switzerland. After the war, they were told that Gerda's father had died during deportation.
Why did the United States go to war? What did Americans know about the “Final Solution”? How did Americans respond to news about the Holocaust? Learn more.
On November 9–10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence. This became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass." Learn more
Survivors in a barracks at the Wöbbelin concentration camp. Germany, May 4–5, 1945.
Piles of corpses, soon after the liberation of the Mauthausen camp. Austria, after May 5, 1945.
Purim portrait of a kindergarten class at the Reali Hebrew gymnasium. Kovno, Lithuania, March 5, 1939.
Survivors in Wöbbelin board trucks for evacuation from the camp to an American field hospital for medical attention. Germany, May 4–5, 1945.
Barracks for prisoners at the Flossenbürg concentration camp, seen here after liberation of the camp by US forces. Flossenbürg, Germany, May 5, 1945.
Corpses of victims of the Gunskirchen subcamp of the Mauthausen concentration camp. Austria, after May 5, 1945.
View of the Mauthausen concentration camp. This photograph was taken after the liberation of the camp. Austria, May 5-30, 1945.
A Syrian girl looks over the Domiz refugee camp outside Duhok, Iraqi Kurdistan. Sepember 5, 2015.
Refugee boys from Syria play on old tents in the Domiz refugee camp outside Duhok, Iraqi Kurdistan. September 5, 2015.
Mauthausen concentration camp inmates with American troops after the liberation of the camp.
Portrait of Secretary of State Cordell Hull signing President Franklin D. Roosevelt's neutrality proclamation. September 5, 1939.
A newspaper advertisement for the Damenklub Violetta, a Berlin club frequented by lesbians, 1928. Before the Nazis came to power in 1933, lesbian communities and networks flourished in Germany.
The Decree against Public Enemies was a key step in the process by which the Nazi leadership moved Germany from a democracy to a dictatorship.
Explore a timeline of key events during the history of the Treblinka killing center in German-occupied Poland.
Explore key dates in the history of the Theresienstadt camp/ghetto, which served multiple purposes during its existence from 1941-45.
The 1944 Warsaw uprising was the single largest military effort undertaken by resistance forces to oppose German occupation during World War II.
The 11th Armored Division participated in major WWII campaigns and is recognized for liberating Mauthausen and Gusen in 1945.
The IG Farben defendants hear the indictments against them before the start of the trial, case #6 of the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings. May 5, 1947.
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