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A family of Macedonian Jews before deportation
PhotoA family of Macedonian Jews in the Tobacco Monopoly transit camp in Skopje before deportation. Skopje, Yugoslavia, March 1943. The Jews of Bulgarian-occupied Thrace and Macedonia were deported in March 1943. On March 11, 1943, over 7,000 Macedonian Jews from Skopje, Bitola, and Stip were rounded up and assembled at the Tobacco Monopoly in Skopje, whose several buildings had been hastily converted into a transit camp. The Macedonian Jews were kept there between eleven and eighteen days,…
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Jews from Macedonia before deportation to the Treblinka killing center
PhotoJews from Macedonia who were rounded up and assembled in the Tobacco Monopoly transit camp before deportation to the Treblinka killing center. Skopje, Yugoslavia, March 1943. The Jews of Bulgarian-occupied Thrace and Macedonia were deported in March 1943. On March 11, 1943, over 7,000 Macedonian Jews from Skopje, Bitola, and Stip were rounded up and assembled at the Tobacco Monopoly in Skopje, whose several buildings had been hastily converted into a transit camp. The Macedonian Jews were kept there…
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Jews outside the Monopol tobacco factory transit camp
PhotoJews outside the Monopol tobacco factory, used as a transit camp by Bulgarian authorities during deportations from Macedonia to the Treblinka killing center in German-occupied Poland. Skopje, Yugoslavia, March 1943. The Jews of Bulgarian-occupied Thrace and Macedonia were deported in March 1943. On March 11, 1943, over 7,000 Macedonian Jews from Skopje, Bitola, and Stip were rounded up and assembled at the Tobacco Monopoly in Skopje, whose several buildings had been hastily converted into a transit camp.…
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Jews prepare soup outside the Monopol tobacco factory transit camp
PhotoJews prepare soup outside the Monopol tobacco factory, used as a transit camp by Bulgarian authorities during deportations of Jews from Macedonia. Skopje, Yugoslavia, March 1943. The Jews of Bulgarian-occupied Thrace and Macedonia were deported in March 1943. On March 11, 1943, over 7,000 Macedonian Jews from Skopje, Bitola, and Stip were rounded up and assembled at the Tobacco Monopoly in Skopje, whose several buildings had been hastily converted into a transit camp. The Macedonian Jews were kept there…
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Sachsenhausen: Key Dates
ArticleKey dates in the history of the Sachsenhausen camp in the Nazi camp system, from its establishment in 1936 to the postwar trial of camp staff in 1947.
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Sachsenhausen: Liberation and Postwar Trials
ArticleLearn about the death march of prisoners from the Sachsenhausen camp, liberation of the remaining prisoners, and postwar trials of camp staff.
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Sam Gruber (Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation biography)
ArticleRead the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation's short biography of Sam Gruber.
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Amsterdam
ArticleLearn about Amsterdam during World War II and the Holocaust, including deportations of Jews to concentration camps and killing centers.
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Danzig
ArticleHitler was determined to overturn the military and territorial provisions of the Versailles treaty, among the much resented loss of the city of Danzig after WWI.
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Norway
ArticleGermany invaded Norway on April 9, 1940. Read more about this invasion, the collaborator Vidkun Quisling, and the tragic fate of Norway’s Jews.
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Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings, Case #5: The Flick Case
ArticleThe Flick Case was Case #5 of 12 Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings against leading German industrialists, military figures, SS perpetrators, and others.
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Nazi Persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War
ArticleOn June 22, 1941, German forces invaded the Soviet Union. Three million German soldiers were reinforced by Finnish, Romanian, Hungarian, Italian, Slovak, and Croatian troops. Within weeks, German divisions conquered the Baltic republics of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. In September the Germans laid siege to Sevastopol and Leningrad, and by late October, the cities of Minsk, Smolensk, Kiev, Odessa, and Kharkov had fallen. Millions of Soviet soldiers were encircled, cut off from supplies and…
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Chuna Grynbaum: Maps
Media EssayChuna Grynbaum was born to Jewish parents in Starachowice, Poland in 1928. When he was 13 years old, Chuna was sent to forced labor at a munitions factory. In 1943, he attempted to escape with his sister, Faiga. Faiga...
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Jozef Wilk: Maps
Media EssayBorn to Roman Catholic parents in Poland, Jozef Wilk was a teenager when Germany invaded in 1939. Jozef left for Warsaw and joined a special unit of the Polish resistance. During the 1943 Warsaw ghetto uprising, Joz...
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Lois Gunden and staff of the Ville St. Christophe refugee children’s home
PhotoLois Gunden (center right) with other members of the Ville St. Christophe staff in Canet-Plage, France. At the age of 26, Lois Gunden, a Mennonite and French teacher from Goshen, Indiana, sailed to Europe to head the Ville St. Christophe refugee children’s home in Canet-Plage, France. She had not been involved with overseas relief work before, and had never been to Europe. But she spoke French, and the Mennonite Central Committee needed someone willing to place herself in danger to help others.…
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Jewish parachutist Hannah Szenes with her brother
PhotoJewish parachutist Hannah Szenes with her brother, before leaving for a rescue mission. Palestine, March 1944. Between 1943 and 1945, a group of Jewish men and women from Palestine who had volunteered to join the British army parachuted into German-occupied Europe. Their mission was to organize resistance to the Germans and aid in the rescue of Allied personnel. Hannah Szenes was among these volunteers. Szenes was captured in German-occupied Hungary and executed in Budapest on November 7,…
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Norman Salsitz's daughter
PhotoNorman's daughter, Esther, at age one. April 1957. With the end of World War II and collapse of the Nazi regime, survivors of the Holocaust faced the daunting task of rebuilding their lives. With little in the way of financial resources and few, if any, surviving family members, most eventually emigrated from Europe to start their lives again. Between 1945 and 1952, more than 80,000 Holocaust survivors immigrated to the United States. Norman was one of them.
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Norman Salsitz's wife and daughter
PhotoNorman's daughter, Esther, at three weeks of age, with her mother, Amalie. September 1956. With the end of World War II and collapse of the Nazi regime, survivors of the Holocaust faced the daunting task of rebuilding their lives. With little in the way of financial resources and few, if any, surviving family members, most eventually emigrated from Europe to start their lives again. Between 1945 and 1952, more than 80,000 Holocaust survivors immigrated to the United States. Norman was one of them.
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Suse Grunbaum at age one
PhotoPhotograph taken in December 1932 of Suse Grunbaum at age one. Soon after Hitler's 1933 seizure of power in Germany, two-year-old Suse and her parents fled to the Netherlands and settled in the town of Dinxperlo. In 1943, Jews in German-occupied Dinxperlo were ordered to assemble for deportation. Hearing of these plans, the Grünbaums went into hiding, finding refuge with Dutch farmers. The Hartemink family hid Suse and her mother for two years in their barn, first under the floorboards, then in a…
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Hannah Szenes
PhotoHannah Szenes on her first day in Palestine. Haifa, Palestine, September 19, 1939. Between 1943 and 1945, a group of Jewish men and women from Palestine who had volunteered to join the British army parachuted into German-occupied Europe. Their mission was to organize resistance to the Germans and aid in the rescue of Allied personnel. Hannah Szenes was among these volunteers. Szenes was captured in German-occupied Hungary and executed in Budapest on November 7, 1944, at the age of 23.
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Aron and Lisa Derman: Oral History Excerpts
Media EssayIn 1942, Aron Derman and Lisa Nussbaum escaped deportation from the Grodno ghetto with the help of Tadek Soroka, a non-Jewish Pole. Aron and Lisa—aged 19 and 15—joined the armed Jewish resistance. As partisans, they f...
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Morris Hillquit
ArticleMorris Hillquit was a prominent theoretician of the socialist movement in the United States. His work was burned in the Nazi book burnings of 1933. Learn more.
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Lindenfels Displaced Persons Camp
ArticleAfter WWII, many Holocaust survivors, unable to return to their homes, lived in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Read about Lindenfels DP camp.
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Wagner-Rogers Bill
Timeline EventFebruary 9, 1939. On this date, the Wagner-Rogers bill was introduced, ultimately unsuccessfully, to permit the entry of 20,000 European refugee children into the United States.
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Mira Shelub
ArticleRead the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation's short biography of Mira Shelub.
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Jewish Parachutists from Palestine
ArticleLearn about a group of Jewish men and women from Palestine who parachuted into German-occupied Europe to organize resistance and aid in the rescue of Allied personnel
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Hidden Children: Expressions
ArticleJewish children in hiding during the Holocaust created writing, art, diaries, and more. Read about the surviving documentation of their experiences.
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Yitzhak Gitterman
ArticleYitzhak Gitterman (1889-1943) was a director of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) in Poland, and a member of the underground Jewish Fighting Organization (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa; ZOB). Gitterman was born in Horonstopol, Ukraine, and began a career of supporting refugees and other victims of persecution during World War I. In 1921, he was appointed director of the JDC in Poland. He took part in the rehabilitation of the Jewish population and the establishment of welfare…
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Reversal of Fortune: Robert Kempner
ArticleLawyer Robert Kempner was expelled from Germany in 1935. After WWII, he would return to serve as assistant US chief counsel during the IMT at Nuremberg.
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James Ingo Freed: Architect of the Museum
ArticleArchitect James Ingo Freed designed the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Rut Berlinska
ArticleChildren's diaries bear witness to some of the most heartbreaking experiences of the Holocaust. Learn about the diary and experiences of Rut Berlinska.
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Miriam Goldberg
ArticleChildren's diaries bear witness to some of the most heartbreaking experiences of the Holocaust. Learn about the diary and experiences of Miriam Goldberg.
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Israel Unikowski
ArticleChildren's diaries bear witness to some of the most heartbreaking events of the Holocaust. Learn about the diary and experiences of Israel Unikowski.
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Euthanasia Program and Aktion T4
ArticleThe Nazi Euthanasia Program, codenamed Aktion "T4," was the systematic murder of institutionalized people with disabilities. Read about Nazi “euthanasia.”
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Genocide Timeline
ArticleKey dates in the use of the term genocide as part of the political, legal, and ethical vocabulary of responding to widespread threats of violence against groups.
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World War II in Europe
ArticleGermany started World War II in Europe on September 1, 1939, by invading Poland. War would continue until 1945. Learn more about WWII and genocide in Europe.
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Polish Jews in Lithuania: Escape to Japan
ArticleBackground The German attack on Poland in September 1939 trapped nearly 3.5 million Jews in German- and Soviet-occupied territories. In late 1940 and early 1941, just months before the Germans initiated the mass murder of Jews in the Soviet Union, some 2,100 Polish Jews found temporary safe haven in Lithuania. Few of these refugees could have reached permanent safety without the tireless efforts of many individuals. Several Jewish organizations and Jewish communities along the way provided funds and…
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Reinhard Heydrich: In Depth
ArticleReinhard Heydrich, Reich Security Main Office chief, was one of the main architects of the “Final Solution," the Nazi plan to murder the Jews of Europe.
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Armband for "Foreign Pao Chia Vigilance Corps Pao"
ArtifactIdentifying armband worn by Pao Chia member. In 1942 the Japanese in Shanghai established self-policing units, Pao Chia, composed of all men, foreigners and Chinese, aged 20 to 45. In the designated area, male refugees served several hours weekly in rotating shifts as guards for buildings and ghetto entrances where they examined passes. Despite the Japanese use of the Pao Chia to help police the ghetto, it was relatively easy to leave the "designated area," which was not walled in. Individuals who did so,…
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Einsatzgruppen massacres in eastern Europe (enlargement)
MapEinsatzgruppen were German special duty units, composed primarily of SS and police personnel, assigned to kill Jews as part of the Nazi program to kill the Jews of Europe. During the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the mobile killing squads followed the German army as it advanced deep into Soviet territory, and carried out mass-murder operations. Wherever the Einsatzgruppen went they shot Jewish men, women, and children, without regard for age or gender. Einsatzgruppen killed more than a…
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Jazz musician Valaida Snow
FilmIn the 1930s, famous Tennessee jazz musician Valaida Snow was known as “Little Louis” because her talent with a trumpet rivaled the legendary Louis Armstrong. She performed around the world, but it was a tour of Europe that would haunt her for the rest of her life. While in German-occupied Denmark, Snow is said to have been arrested and imprisoned in Copenhagen. It is still unclear why she was arrested or what was done to her while she was held, but after her release in a May 1942 prisoner exchange,…
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Emil Ludwig
ArticleEmil Ludwig was a liberal journalist and popular biographer whose works were burned under the Nazi regime in 1933. Learn more.
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Nazi Imperialism: An Overview
ArticleThe Nazis pursued the imperialist concept of Lebensraum (living space) as they conquered eastern Europe. Read more about the deadly consequences of Nazi imperialism.
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Theresienstadt: Other Prisoners
ArticleIn addition to Jews from the Greater German Reich and the Protectorate, small groups of Jewish prisoners from other German-occupied countries were sent to Theresienstadt after June 1942. The largest group included 4,894 Dutch Jews and three French Jews transported from the Netherlands in 1943 and 1944, mostly from the Westerbork transit camp, but also from Bergen-Belsen. Many of the 297 Jews arriving in Theresienstadt from the Netherlands in 1943 were in fact German or Austrian Jews who had emigrated to…
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Tuvia Bielski
ArticleRead the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation's short biography of Tuvia Bielski.
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Sara Fortis
ArticleRead the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation's short biography of Sara Fortis.
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Meir Porges
ArticleRead the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation's short biography of Meir Porges.
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Alexander White
ArticleRead the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation's short biography of Alexander White.
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Salonika
ArticleBefore World War II, Salonika (Thessaloniki) had the largest Jewish community in Greece.&...
