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Romani (Gypsy) children play outside at the Jargeau internment camp. The camp was established in response to a German order in October 1940 calling for the arrest and confinement in camps of all Frenchmen or foreigners in the Loiret region who did not have a permanent residence. Jargeau, France, 1941–45. Conditions in the camp were extremely poor and the lack of sanitation facilities led to the periodic outbreak of epidemics.
Shony was born to religious Jewish parents in a small Transylvanian city. He began to learn the violin at age 5. His town was occupied by Hungary in 1940 and by Germany in 1944. In May 1944, he was deported to the Auschwitz camp in Poland. He was transferred to the Natzweiler camp system in France and then to Dachau, where he was liberated by US troops in April 1945. In 1950, he immigrated to the United States, and became a composer and a professional violinist.
Some Jewish children survived the Holocaust by hiding or living under disguised identities. Learn more about their experiences while in hiding.
Ernst Toller was one of the best-known German dramatists of the 1920s. He wrote against Nazism, and was among those whose works were burned under the Nazi regime.
American-Jewish journalist and author Ben Hecht co-wrote the We Will Never Die pageant and advocated for the rescue of Jewish victims from Nazism. Learn more.
One of the oldest cities in Poland, Kalisz played a pivotal role in Polish Jewish history. Learn about the Jewish Community in Kalisz from the 12th Century to WWI.
Bertolt Brecht was a leading German dramatist, well known for his political films and plays. His works were burned during the Nazi book burnings of 1933. Learn more.
View photos connected to the experiences of women during the Holocaust, as well as the important role women played in resistance activities.
Refugee boys from Syria play on old tents in the Domiz refugee camp outside Duhok, Iraqi Kurdistan. September 5, 2015.
A Jewish man attempts to make a living by playing music on a gramophone, which he wheels around in an old baby carriage. Warsaw ghetto, Poland, wartime.
Stefan was born to Romani ("Gypsy") parents in the capital of Moldavia in eastern Romania. The family lived in a mixed neighborhood of Roma and Romanians. Stefan's father made a living playing guitar in local restaurants. As a child, Stefan learned to play the violin and he often performed with his father. 1933-39: When Stefan was a teenager and old enough to branch out on his own, he left his father and teamed up with another young man to perform in restaurants. They performed all over Moldavia. The…
Frances Perkins was FDR's secretary of labor. Learn about her role in the rescue of European Jews whose lives were threatened by the Nazi regime.
After the German invasion in 1939, Edwarda and her family left Warsaw and moved to a small village near Lublin. Her parents were murdered by German soldiers in 1942. Edwarda was eventually taken in by the Rorat family. The Rorats owned a village store. She lived under their protection throughout the war and continued to live with them after liberation. She completed her education in Poland and later immigrated to the United States.
Often known as Sanyi, Sandor was born to religious Jewish parents in a small city in Transylvania, a province that had been ruled by Hungary until 1918. During the 1930s his home city was renamed I.G. Duca in honor of a slain Romanian leader. The fourth of six children, Sandor was also known by his Hebrew name, Yitzhak. The Brauns knew Yiddish, Hungarian, Romanian and Hebrew. 1933-39: Before Sandor's fourth birthday, a babysitter took him on an outing into the forest. When she fell asleep he wandered…
The European rail network played a crucial role in the implementation of the Final Solution. Millions were deported by rail to killing centers and other sites.
The US Army Signal Corps had a crucial role in documenting—in both film and photographs—the atrocities perpetrated during the Holocaust.
Adolf Hitler's Nazi aimed to purify the genetic makeup of the German population through measures known as racial hygiene or eugenics.
To implement their policies, the Nazis had help from individuals across Europe, including professionals in many fields. Learn about the role of doctors and nurses.
Members of the orchestra at the Janowska concentration camp perform while standing in a circle around the conductor in the Appelplatz [roll call area]. Pictured at the right, in the light uniform, is camp commandant Warzok Franz. The Janowska orchestra included some of the leading Jewish musicians in Lvov, among them violinist Leonid Stricks and cellist Leon Eber. The SS forced the orchestra to perform during selections and actions and even "commissioned" a special composition to be played on these…
In summer of 1941, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Nazis gradually occu...
Carl Clauberg, one of many German doctors involved in Nazi crimes, conducted medical experiments at Auschwitz toward developing a method of mass sterilization. Learn more.
Brief overview of the charges against Walther Funk, economics minister and national bank president, during the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.
The charges against German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, negotiator of the German-Soviet Pact, during the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.
Shony was born to religious Jewish parents in a small Transylvanian city. He began to learn the violin at age 5. His town was occupied by Hungary in 1940 and by Germany in 1944. In May 1944, he was deported to the Auschwitz camp in Poland. He was transferred to the Natzweiler camp system in France and then to Dachau, where he was liberated by US troops in April 1945. In 1950, he immigrated to the United States, and became a composer and a professional violinist.
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. After the German occupation, Sarah (then just three years old) and her mother were forced into a ghetto. One day, a Polish Catholic policeman warned them that the ghetto was about to be liquidated. He sheltered Sarah and her mother first in his house, then in a potato storage bunker, and then in a chicken coop on his property. Sarah hid there for more than two years, until the area was liberated by Soviet forces. After the war, Sarah emigrated from…
Charged with managing the mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and killing centers, Adolf Eichmann was a key figure in the "Final Solution."
Between 1933-1945, Latin American governments officially permitted approx. 84,000 Jewish refugees. Learn more about Latin America refugee policy.
Arthur Szyk became one of America's most prominent cartoonists and caricaturists during World War II. His images reached millions during the 1940s. Learn more.
The Weimar Republic existed in Germany from 1918-1933. Learn more about German police during that time.
Adolf Eichmann was a key figure in implementing the “Final Solution,” the Nazi plan to kill Europe's Jews. Learn more through key dates and events.
During the Holocaust, Jews were forced into ghettos with terrible living conditions, overcrowding, and starvation. Learn more about life in the Lodz ghetto.
Learn about the background and traditional observances of Purim, a Jewish holiday marking the deliverance of the Jews from a royal death decree.
Alfred Rosenberg was one of the most influential Nazi ideologues. He held several positions in the Nazi Party over the course of his career. During World War II, Rosenberg played key roles in the looting of art and the implementation of the “Final S...
Nazi Germany’s dedicated filming of itself became evidence of its crimes and was displayed at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. Learn more.
Learn about Operation “Harvest Festival” (Aktion “Erntefest”), the Nazi attack against the remaining Jews of the Lublin District of the General Government.
Irmgard Huber was head nurse of the facility at Hadamar, one of 6 major "euthanasia" killing centers in Nazi Germany. Learn more about her role.
After WWII, many Holocaust survivors, unable to return to their homes, lived in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Read about Salzburg DP camp.
Stefan Zweig was a prolific author and one of the most popular writers of the interwar period. His work was burned in Nazi Germany in 1933. Learn more.
After WWII, many Holocaust survivors, unable to return to their homes, lived in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Read about Bad Reichenhall DP camp.
Adolf Berman speaks at a memorial service commemorating the Warsaw ghetto uprising. The building in the background, destroyed during the 1943 uprising, held the office of the Jewish council. Warsaw, Poland, 1945. During the German occupation, Berman was active in the Jewish underground and played a leadership role in the Council for Aid to Jews, known as Zegota.
From 1933 to 1945, Nazi Germany carried out a campaign to "cleanse" German society of individuals viewed as biological threats to the nation's "health." Learn more
Germany’s policemen played a key role in the consolidation of Nazi power. During WWII, their role became radicalized. Learn about police in Germany before and after the Nazi rise to power.
Explore images and film by US filmmaker and photographer Julien Bryan, including documentation of Warsaw following the German invasion of Poland.
Program for an evening performance sponsored by the Shanghai Jewish Club. The program included the play "The Day of His Return" and a concert of Jewish songs. On April 27, 1943, the day of this performance featuring Warsaw Jewish actress Raya Zomina, fierce fighting continued in the Warsaw ghetto between German troops and Jews who chose to resist Nazi efforts to liquidate the ghetto. Terrifying rumors about the Holocaust reached the Jewish refugees in Shanghai, but they did not receive reliable news or…
Germany invaded Norway on April 9, 1940, simultaneously attacking Norway's coastal cities from Narvik in the far north to Oslo in the south. Despite Allied naval superiority, German naval forces played an important role in the campaign. This footage shows German naval units sailing towards Norway in rough seas. German victory in Norway secured access to the North Atlantic for the German navy, especially the submarine fleet, and safeguarded transports of Swedish iron ore for Germany's war industry.
The Third Reich began with the Nazi rise to power in 1933 and ended with the German surrender in 1945. Learn more about Nazi Germany during World War II.
Despite Hitler’s popularity, there was also opposition. Learn more about German resistance, which ranged from non-compliance to assassination attempts.
The plight of Jewish refugees aboard the Exodus 1947 captured the world's attention and symbolized the struggle for unrestricted immigration into Palestine.
Songs, verses, and writings of writers and poets in the ghettos reflect efforts to preserve culture, humanity, and documentation, as well as acts of defiance. Explore examples.
The German Foreign Office played an integral role in Nazi anti-Jewish policies and the Holocaust. Learn more about the office's responsibilities during that time.
We would like to thank Crown Family Philanthropies and the Abe and Ida Cooper Foundation for supporting the ongoing work to create content and resources for the Holocaust Encyclopedia. View the list of all donors.