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Emanuel Litwak

Emanuel, often known by his nickname Manek, was one of five children born to religious Jewish parents in the industrial city of Lvov. After graduating from secondary school, he entered Lvov's polytechnic institute to study civil engineering. 1933-39: At the institute the Jewish students had to stand on the left side of the lecture hall. Once, antisemitic schoolmates broke his jaw because he put up a fight when he was insulted. Manek sued his attackers, but the case was dismissed; the judge said Manek…

Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945

Learn about the history of discrimination against Roma in Europe and how the Nazi regime committed genocide against European Roma during WWII.

Czechoslovakia

Learn more about pre-World War II Czechoslovakia and about the annexation of Czechoslovak territory by Nazi Germany in 1938.

Enemies of the State

Although Jews were the main target of Nazi hatred, they were not the only group persecuted. Ot...

Fascism

Fascism is a far-right authoritarian political philosophy. Learn about the history and principles of fascism and its implementation in Nazi Germany.

Herzogenbusch Subcamps

Learn about the subcamps of the SS-established Herzogenbusch concentration camp in the Netherlands, including Amersfoort, Arnheim, Eindhoven, and others.

Deportations to Killing Centers

With help from allies and collaborators, German authorities deported Jews from across Europe to killing centers. The vast majority were gassed almost immediately after their arrival in the killing centers.

The Nazification of the German Police, 1933–1939

The Nazis utilized the German police for mass repression and genocide. Learn more about the Nazification of the police force from 1933-1939.

The Reichstag Fire

The Nazis and their coalition partners used the burning of the Reichstag on February 27, 1933, as the pretext for emergency legislation that ultimately paved the way for Nazi dictatorship.

Anti-Jewish Legislation in North Africa

The Vichy regime introduced race laws to the North African territories in October of 1940. Learn about the impact of the laws on the region’s Jewish people.

Collections Highlight: Selma Schwarzwald and her Bear, "Refugee"

While living under an assumed identity after escaping from the Lvov ghetto, Selma Schwarzwald received a toy bear that she kept with her for many years. Read about Refugee the bear.

Who were the Victims?

Jews were the primary targets for mass murder by the Nazis and their collaborators. Nazi policies also led to the brutalization and persecution of millions of others.

State of Israel, boundaries as of 1949

Postwar Refugee Crisis and the Establishment of the State of Israel - Photograph

Immediate American Responses to the Nazi Book Burnings

The Nazi book burnings of 1933 sparked responses from anti-Fascist organizations, Jewish groups, and writers in the United States. Learn more.

The SS

The SS (Schutzstaffel) was the elite guard of the Nazi regime and a virtual state within the Third Reich.

University Student Groups in Nazi Germany

Nazi student groups played a key role in aligning German universities with Nazi ideology and in solidifying Nazi power.

Nazi Rule

After they rose to power in 1933, Hitler and the Nazis eliminated democratic freedoms and took control of all aspects of public life in Germany. Learn more.

Children's Diaries during the Holocaust

Of the millions of children who suffered persecution at the hands of the Nazis and their Axis partners, a small number wrote diaries and journals that have survived.

Third Reich

The “Third Reich” is another name for Nazi Germany between 1933-1945. Learn more about life under Nazi rule before and during World War II.

John Dolibois describes attitude of captured Nazi leaders

John Dolibois immigrated to the United States in 1931 at the age of 13. After graduating from college, Dolibois joined the 16th Armored Division of the US Army. Due to his German language skills, he became involved in military intelligence. He returned to Europe in this capacity toward the end of World War II. Dolibois interrogated German prisoners of war, including leading Nazis, in preparation for the postwar trials of war criminals. He was later appointed US ambassador to Luxembourg, his birthplace.

The Nazi Party

The National Socialist German Worker’s Party, also known as the Nazi Party, was the far-right racist and antisemitic political party led by Adolf Hitler.

Secretary of State Cordell Hull signs the Neutrality Law

Four days after the outbreak of World War II, Secretary of State Cordell Hull signs the Neutrality Proclamation (first signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt) at the State Department. Washington, DC, United States, September 5, 1939.

The United States and the Holocaust, 1942–45

Why did the United States go to war? What did Americans know about the “Final Solution”? How did Americans respond to news about the Holocaust? Learn more.

Martin Niemöller: Biography

Protestant pastor Martin Niemöller emerged as an opponent of Adolf Hitler and was imprisoned in camps for 7 years. Learn about the complexities surrounding his beliefs.