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Gardelegen
ArticleIn April 1945, US troops encountered a barn on the outskirts of Gardelegen where the SS and its accomplices had massacred over 1,000 concentration camp prisoners.
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Esther Lurie
ArticleArtist Esther Lurie documented life in the Kovno ghetto for its secret archives. Learn about her watercolors and sketches, the majority of which have never been found.
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Smoke rises from Rotterdam during the German assault
PhotoGerman forces during the military assault on Rotterdam during the Western Campaign. Rotterdam, the Netherlands, May 1940.
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Ghettos
ArticleGhettos separating Jews from the rest of the population were part of the Nazi plan to destroy Europe's Jews. Read about ghettoization during the Holocaust.
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Death Marches
ArticleDeath Marches Near the end of the war, when Germany's military force was collapsing, the Allied armies closed in on the Nazi concentration camps. The Soviets approached from the east, and the British, French, and Americans from the west. The Germans began frantically to move the prisoners out of the camps near the front and take them to be used as forced laborers in camps inside Germany. Prisoners were first taken by train and then by foot on "death marches," as they became known. Prisoners were forced…
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Vittel
ArticleGerman authorities established the Vittel internment camp in occupied France in 1941. It belonged to the complex of POW camps designated Frontstalag 194.
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Deportations to and from the Warsaw Ghetto
ArticleAt its height, the Warsaw ghetto held over 400,000 people living in horrendous and worsening conditions. Learn about deportations both to and from the ghetto.
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Locating the Victims
ArticleThe Germans and their collaborators used paper records and local knowledge to identify Jews to be rounded up or killed during the Holocaust.
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Return to Europe of the St. Louis
ArticleIn May 1939, the St. Louis set sail from Germany to Cuba. Most of the passengers, fleeing Nazi Germany, were denied entry. Learn more about their fates.
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Killing Centers: An Overview
ArticleThe Nazis established killing centers in German-occupied Europe during WWII. They built these killing centers for the mass murder of human beings.
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German Forces Launch Offensive
Timeline EventJune 28, 1942. On this date, German forces attacked the Soviet Union in the south towards the city of Stalingrad.
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Battle of the Somme
Timeline EventJuly 1, 1916. On this date, the most causalities in a single day during World War I occurred at the Battle of Somme.
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The Armenian Genocide (1915-16): In Depth
ArticleLearn more about the Armenian Genocide, which was the physical annihilation of ethnic Armenian Christians living in the Ottoman Empire between 1915-1916.
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Supreme Court Decision on the Nuremberg Race Laws
ArticleLearn more about the 1936 German Supreme Court decision on the Nuremberg Race Laws.
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Volkswagen
ArticleThe Volkswagen automobile company went into military production during WWII, operating concentration and forced-labor camps. Learn more about its role.
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Writing the News
ArticleShortly after taking power in January 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis took control of German newspapers, detailing how the news was to be reported.
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Lackenbach (Roma internment and transit camp)
ArticleThe Lackenbach internment and transit camp for Roma, located in what had been eastern Austria, was a departure point for deportations to Lodz and Auschwitz.
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Concentration Camps, 1933–39
ArticleLearn about early concentration camps the Nazi regime established in Germany, and the expansion of the camp system during the Holocaust and World War II.
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The Treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, Disease, and Shootings, June 1941–January 1942
ArticleThe Nazi treatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) was determined by Nazi ideology. Cruel conditions included starvation, no medical care, and death.
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President Obama's Remarks at Buchenwald
ArticlePresident Barack Obama visited Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany on June 5, 2009. In a speech at the site, he repudiated Holocaust denial. Browse transcript.
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Ardeatine Caves Massacre
ArticleNow a national memorial site, the Ardeatine Caves outside Rome were the site of a German reprisal for a bombing by Italian resistance operatives in March 1944.
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Deceiving the Public
ArticleThe Nazis frequently used propaganda to disguise their political aims and deceive the German and international public. Learn more.
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1944: Key Dates
ArticleExplore a timeline of key events during 1944 in the history of Nazi Germany, World War II, and the Holocaust.
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War Refugee Board: Activities
ArticleThe War Refugee Board was a significant US attempt to rescue and relieve Jews and other endangered people under German occupation. Learn about its activities.
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Paragraph 175 and the Nazi Campaign against Homosexuality
ArticleParagraph 175 was a German statute that criminalized sexual relations between men. The Nazis revised Paragraph 175 in 1935 to make it broader and harsher.
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German Invasion of Poland
Timeline EventSeptember 1, 1939. On this date, Germany invaded Poland and initiated World War II in Europe.
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Hitler Comes to Power
ArticleHitler rose to power during a time of economic and political instability in Germany. Learn more about how and when Hitler came to power.
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Westerbork
ArticleThe Westerbork transit camp, located in the German-occupied Netherlands, served as a temporary collection point for Jews in the Netherlands before deportation.
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Page 1 of Letter from US Soldier Aaron Eiferman
Timeline EventApril 27, 1945. On this date, US soldier Aaron A. Eiferman wrote a letter to his wife describing conditions in Kaufering IV in Germany.
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München-Schwabing
ArticleLearn about the establishment and history of the Dachau subcamp München-Schwabing, and the role of Eleonore Baur (also known as Schwester Pia or Sister Pia).
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Hainewalde
ArticleThe SA established a protective custody camp at Hainewalde in March 1933. Well-known journalist and writer Axel Eggebrecht was among its early prisoners.
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D-Day
Timeline EventJune 6, 1944. On this date, US, British, and Canadian troops land on the beaches of Normandy, France.
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Former gas chamber in the Auschwitz main camp
PhotoPostwar photograph of gas chamber for mass murder in the Auschwitz main camp. Poland, ca. 1947. In mid-August 1940, Auschwitz concentration camp authorities put into operation a crematorium adjacent to a morgue. This building was located just outside the boundaries of the Auschwitz main camp. In September 1941, the morgue was converted to a gas chamber for mass murder where several hundred people could be killed at a time. This gas chamber was used until December 1942, though the crematorium remained…
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Soviet Prisoners of War in Minsk
Timeline EventAugust 15, 1941. On this date, Heinrich Himmler inspected Soviet prisoners of war at a Nazi camp in Minsk, Belarus.
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Swastika flag rises over Versailles and Paris
FilmThe German western campaign into the Low Countries and France shattered Allied lines. Within six weeks, Britain evacuated its forces from the Continent and France requested an armistice with Germany. Paris, the French capital, fell to the Germans on June 14, 1940. In this footage, triumphant German forces raise the swastika flag over Versailles and over the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Versailles, the traditional residence of French kings, was deeply symbolic for the Germans: it was the site of both the…
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German forces in Italy surrender to the Allies
FilmAllied forces occupied most of Germany by the end of April 1945. German forces fighting in Italy were the first to surrender unconditionally to the Allies. Representatives of the German command in Italy signed the surrender on April 29, and it became effective on May 2, 1945. Five days later, on May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally to the western Allies, ending the war in Europe.
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Adolf Eichmann Found Guilty
Timeline EventDecember 15, 1961. On this date, Adolf Eichmann was found guilty of crimes against the Jewish people and sentenced to death.
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Telford Taylor describes Justice Case defendants
FilmIn the Justice Case of the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings, nine officials from the German Ministry of Justice and seven members of the Nazi-era People's and Special Courts were charged with “judicial murder and other atrocities, which they committed by destroying law and justice in Germany, and then utilizing the emptied forms of legal process for the persecution, enslavement and extermination on a large scale.” This footage shows US prosecutor Telford Taylor describing the defendants.
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Tchiya Perlmutter
ID CardTchiya was the eldest of two daughters born to a Jewish family in the town of Horochow, 50 miles northeast of Lvov. Her father was a philosophy professor who taught at the university in Lvov, and both of her parents were civic leaders in Horochow. 1933-39: In September 1939 Germany invaded western Poland, and three weeks later the Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland [as a result of the German-Soviet Pact], where Horochow was located. Hordes of refugees fleeing the Germans streamed through the town.…
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Portrait of Żegota member Irena Sendler
PhotoPortrait of Irena Sendler in Warsaw, Poland, circa 1939. Irena Sendler (1910–2008) was a member of the Council for Aid to Jews, codenamed “Żegota.” Żegota was a clandestine rescue organization of Poles and Jews in German-occupied Poland. Supported by the Polish government-in-exile, Żegota coordinated efforts to save Jews from Nazi persecution and murder. It operated from 1942 to 1945. Irena Sendler (Sendlerowa) was working as a social worker in Warsaw when World War II broke out in 1939. After…
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Dayton Peace Agreement Reached
Timeline EventNovember 21, 1995. On this date, the three-year civil war in Bosnia-Herzegovina ended with a peace agreement negotiated in Dayton, Ohio.
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Jewish refugee ship Pan-York docks in Haifa
PhotoThe Jewish refugee ship Pan-York, carrying new citizens to the recently established state of Israel, docks at Haifa. The ship sailed from southern Europe to Israel, via Cyprus. Haifa, Israel, July 9, 1948.
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How did the United States government and American people respond to Nazism?
Discussion QuestionConsideration of American responses to Nazism during the 1930s and 1940s raises questions about the responsibility to intervene in response to persecution or genocide in another country.
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How did different goals and political systems shape racism in Nazi Germany and the United States?
Discussion QuestionThis discussion question focuses on the history of racial antisemitism in Germany and its relationship to racism in the United States.
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Alice Krakauerova Seelenfriedova
ID CardAlice was the third of six children born to Jewish parents in the small Moravian town of Hodonin, where her father ran a dry goods and clothing store. The family spoke both Czech and German at home, and Alice attended a German-language secondary school. After graduating, she married her teenage sweetheart, Otto Seelenfried, who was a chemical engineer. 1933-39: Alice and Otto moved to the town of Jihlava. In 1934 Otto died from a ruptured appendix, and Alice returned to live with her parents in Hodonin.…
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Mordecai Pinchas Szabasson
ID CardMordecai, known in Yiddish as Motl, was born to a religious Jewish family with six children. His hometown of Kozienice, located near a birch forest, had an important lumber industry. After graduating from secondary school, Mordecai entered the lumber business. His small, successful company bought and sold lumber. 1933-39: A few months after the Germans invaded Poland in September 1939, Mordecai's father was warned to leave because, as a prominent member of the community, it was likely that the Germans…
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Defendants enter pleas at Nuremberg Trial
FilmAfter the defeat of Germany, the Allies tried leading state and party officials and military commanders of the Third Reich before a tribunal of military judges from the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France, and the United States. This International Military Tribunal tried 22 major war criminals during what is commonly known as the Nuremberg Trial, which lasted from November 1945 to October 1946. This footage shows the accused entering pleas following their indictment on charges of crimes against peace, war…
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Death March from Auschwitz
Timeline EventJanuary 17, 1945. On this date, SS units evacuated prisoners from the Auschwitz camp complex as Soviet forces approached.
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Harold Herbst describes meeting a prisoner on the verge of death (known as a "Muselmann") in Buchenwald
Oral HistoryAfter studying medicine at Wayne State University in Michigan, Harold joined the army in 1942. He was attached to the 107th Evacuation Hospital. The unit trained in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and then tracked the US First Army after the June 1944 Normandy invasion. Harold was attached to the US Third Army under George S. Patton in December. He went to Buchenwald shortly after the SS guards fled the camp in April 1945.
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Mirjana Babunovic Dimitrijevic
ID CardMirjana was the second of three children born to well-to-do Serbian parents in the capital of Bosnia, in central Yugoslavia. Her father was a successful businessman and prominent Serbian nationalist. Like her parents, Mirjana was baptized in the Serbian Orthodox faith. Mirjana attended elementary school in the multi-ethnic city of Sarajevo. 1933-39: While in secondary school, Mirjana studied foreign languages and toured western Europe. In 1938 she graduated. That fall she enrolled as a student of English…
