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First Letter to All Judges
ArticleLearn how the "First Letter to all Judges" increased the pressure on German judges to give verdicts and sentences according to Nazi principles and ideology.
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Röhm Purge
ArticleThe Röhm Purge (the “Night of the Long Knives") was the murder of the leadership of the SA (Storm Troopers), the Nazi paramilitary formation led by Ernst Röhm. Learn more.
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Laura Litwak
ID CardLaura was the second of five children born to religious Jewish parents in the industrial city of Lvov. She was often called affectionately by her nickname, Lorka. Coming from an educated family living in a multi-ethnic part of Poland, she grew up speaking Polish, Russian, German and Yiddish. As a young woman, she earned a humanities degree from St. Nicholas University in Lvov. 1933-39: In April 1935 Laura became Mrs. Daniel Schwarzwald. Her husband was a successful lumber exporter, and they lived in a…
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The Rhine Crossings in World War II
ArticleCrossing the Rhine River allowed US and British troops to advance into the interior of Germany, helping to bring about the defeat of the Third Reich in WWII
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Kamenets-Podolsk
ArticleIn August 1941, Kamenets-Podolsk became the site of a mass killing of Jews. This was one of the first large-scale mass murders of the Final Solution.
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Erich Maria Remarque
ArticleErich Maria Remarque wrote the classic novel “All Quiet on the Western Front,” which became a Hollywood film. His works were burned under the Nazi regime in 1933.
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Kazimiera Banach Justynowa
ID CardKazimiera was born to Roman Catholic parents in the town of Mierzen. After graduating from a teacher's college in Staniatki, she married Wincenty Justyna, a secondary school teacher. The couple settled in the small industrial city of Piotrkow Trybunalski and raised three children, Jerzy (a boy), Danuta and Maria. Kazimiera worked as a school teacher. 1933-39: With their combined incomes the Justynas were able to buy a plot of land and build a house. The Germans invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and…
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Celia Petranker
ID CardCelia was the youngest of three daughters born to Jewish parents living in Stanislav [Stanislawow], Poland. Her father was an ardent Zionist, and dreamed of moving his family to Palestine to help build a Jewish homeland. Celia and her sisters attended private Hebrew primary and secondary schools to help prepare them for their eventual immigration to Palestine. 1933-39: Celia's oldest sister, Pepka, left for Palestine one week after the Germans invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Pepka's departure was…
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The United States and the Nazi Threat: 1933–37
ArticleLearn about responses in the United States to reports about Nazi anti-Jewish policies and violence against Jews from 1933–37.
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1943: Key Dates
ArticleExplore a timeline of key events during 1943 in the history of Nazi Germany, World War II, and the Holocaust.
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Flossenbürg
ArticleLearn about the Flossenbürg camp from its establishment until liberation in April 1945, including conditions, forced labor, subcamps, and death marches.
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Nenad Dusan Popovic
ID CardNenad was the youngest of nine children born to Serbian Orthodox landowners in the eastern Croatian part of Yugoslavia. During World War I the Popovic family was evacuated to Vukovar by the Austro-Hungarian army, which was then at war with Serbia. In 1928 Nenad moved to Belgrade, where he attended Belgrade University, graduating with a law degree in 1932. 1933-39: Nenad's specialty was law related to economics and he found a job in the economic research department of the Yugoslav central bank in Belgrade.…
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Erich Maria Remarque: In Depth
ArticleIn 1933, Nazi students at more than 30 German universities pillaged libraries in search of boo...
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Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country
ArticleBefore the Nazis seized power in Germany in 1933, Europe had a richly diverse set of Jewish cultures. Learn more about the Jewish population of Europe.
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The German Army and the Racial Nature of the War against the Soviet Union
ArticleNazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Learn more about the racial and ideological motivations behind this “war of annihilation.”
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Persecution of Roma (Gypsies) in Prewar Germany, 1933–1939
ArticleBeginning in 1933, the Nazis persecuted Roma (often pejoratively called “Gypsies”) based on underlying prejudices and racism. Learn how this harassment escalated to genocide.
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Jewish Community of Monastir: A Community in Flux
ArticleThe Sephardic Jewish community of Monastir was historically the largest Jewish community in Macedonia. Learn about the community before and during WWII and the Holocaust.
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SS: Key Dates
ArticleKey dates in the history of the SS (Schutzstaffel; Protection Squadrons), charged with the leadership of the “Final Solution,” the murder of European Jews.
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German Prewar Expansion
ArticleAdolf Hitler was determined to overturn the military and territorial provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. Learn more about Nazi German territorial aggression before WWII.
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Lublin/Majdanek Concentration Camp: Administration
ArticleIn 1940, the Nazis established Lublin (Majdanek) concentration camp in Lublin, Poland. Learn more about camp administration.
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Final Solutions: Murderous Racial Hygiene, 1939–1945
ArticleBased on their ideas about race, the Nazis mass murdered people with disabilities; people perceived as threats in occupied Poland; and Jewish people. Learn more.
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Displaced Persons: Administration
ArticleLearn about the establishment and administration of displaced persons camps after WWII and the experiences of Jewish DPs.
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Edward R. Murrow
ArticleUS radio and TV journalist Edward R. Murrow reported live from London during the Blitz; he also broadcast the first eyewitness account of the liberation of Buchenwald.
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Theresienstadt: Establishment
ArticleLearn about the establishment of the Theresienstadt camp/ghetto, which served multiple purposes from 1941-45 and had an important propaganda function for the Germans.
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Aliyah Bet
ArticleLearn more about Aliyah Bet, the clandestine immigration of Jews to Palestine between 1920 and 1948, when Great Britain controlled the area.
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Salonika
ArticleSalonika, Greece was invaded and occupied by the Nazis in 1941. Learn more about the fate of the Jews in Salonika during World War II.
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SS and the Holocaust
ArticleLearn more about the SS and the organization’s involvement in perpetrating the Holocaust.
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Eleanor Roosevelt: The Early Years
ArticleShort biography of Eleanor Roosevelt, who would become the longest serving First Lady in US history.
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The Role of the German Police
ArticleTo implement their policies, the Nazis had help from individuals across Europe, including professionals in many fields. Learn about the role of the German police.
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Nazi Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses
ArticleJehovah's Witnesses were subjected to intense persecution under the Nazi regime. Read more to learn why and how the Nazi regime targeted them.
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Resistance inside Germany
ArticleSome individuals and groups in Germany attempted to resist Nazism, despite the risk of being caught and facing punishment. Learn more about their efforts.
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Nazi Book Burnings: Recurring Symbol
ArticleBook burnings and bans were not exclusive to—and did not end with—the Nazi regime. Learn more about the symbolism of book burnings.
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Nazi Camps
ArticleNazi Germany and its allies established over 44,000 concentration camps and incarceration sites during the Holocaust. Read about the Nazi camp system.
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Darfur
ArticleFrom 2003 to 2005, an estimated 200,000 civilians died as a result of a campaign of violence in Darfur by the Sudanese government. In 2004, the US Secretary of State called this violence a genocide.
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The History of the Swastika
ArticleThe swastika is an ancient symbol that was in use in many different cultures for many years before Adolf Hitler made it the centerpiece of the Nazi flag.
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Dachau
ArticleDachau was the first and longest operating Nazi concentration camp. Learn about the camp's early years, prisoners, medical experiments, and liberation.
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The Immigration of Refugee Children to the United States
ArticleMore than one thousand unaccompanied refugee children fleeing Nazi persecution arrived in the United States between 1933 and 1945. Learn more
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Dezso Rozsa
ID CardDezso was from a Jewish family in Hungary's capital, Budapest. His father had been a violinist. Dezso earned a university degree in English, and became a language teacher. He wrote a number of high school grammar textbooks. In 1914 he married Iren Hajdu, who was a mathematician. The couple had two children; a daughter, Eva, born in 1918, and a son, Pal, born seven years later. 1933-39: Dezso fears for the worst now that the antisemitic Prime Minister Teleki has taken power again. Nineteen years ago, in…
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International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg
ArticleThe International Military Tribunal (IMT) opened in Nuremberg within months of Germany’s surrender. Learn about the judges, defendants, charges, and legacies.
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Columbia-Haus
ArticleThe Columbia-Haus camp was one of the early camps established by the Nazi regime. It held primarily political detainees. Learn more about the history of the camp.
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The Farhud
ArticleThe Farhud (pogrom), an outbreak of mob violence against Baghdad Jewry in June 1941, was a turning point in the history of Jews in Iraq. Learn more
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Pogroms
ArticleThe term “pogrom” historically refers to violent attacks on Jews by local non-Jewish populations. Learn about pogroms before, during, and after the Holocaust.
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The Rescue Mission of Gilbert and Eleanor Kraus
ArticleIn the spring of 1939, Gilbert and Eleanor Kraus rescued 50 Jewish children from Vienna, Austria, by bringing them to the United States. Learn about their mission.
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D-Day
ArticleThe D-Day invasion was the largest amphibious attack in history. Read articles and browse photos and videos of Allied forces invading Normandy on June 6, 1944.
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German-Soviet Pact
ArticleThe German-Soviet Pact paved the way for the joint invasion and occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in September 1939.
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Wartime Fate of the Passengers of the St. Louis
ArticleIn May 1939, the St. Louis set sail from Germany to Cuba. Most of the passengers, fleeing Nazi Germany, were denied entry. Learn more about their fates.
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Börgermoor Camp
ArticleBörgermoor was part of the Nazi regime’s early system of concentration camps. It was located in the Emsland region of Prussia.
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Armed Jewish Resistance: Partisans
ArticleFacing overwhelming odds, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners.
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The British Policy of Appeasement toward Hitler and Nazi Germany
ArticleIn the 1930s, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and the British government pursued a policy of appeasement towards Nazi Germany to avoid war. Learn more.
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Nazis enter Danzig
PhotoMembers of the SA enter Danzig in 1939. Germany annexed most of western Poland and Danzig within weeks of the German invasion of Poland.
