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African Americans in Nazi Germany

Learn about African Americans' experiences in Nazi Germany before and during World War II.

Nenad Dusan Popovic

Nenad was the youngest of nine children born to Serbian Orthodox landowners in the eastern Croatian part of Yugoslavia. During World War I the Popovic family was evacuated to Vukovar by the Austro-Hungarian army, which was then at war with Serbia. In 1928 Nenad moved to Belgrade, where he attended Belgrade University, graduating with a law degree in 1932. 1933-39: Nenad's specialty was law related to economics and he found a job in the economic research department of the Yugoslav central bank in Belgrade.…

Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country

Before the Nazis seized power in Germany in 1933, Europe had a richly diverse set of Jewish cultures. Learn more about the Jewish population of Europe.

Börgermoor Camp

Börgermoor was part of the Nazi regime’s early system of concentration camps. It was located in the Emsland region of Prussia.

Who Was Put on Trial?

The International Military Tribunal charged 24 defendants representing a cross-section of German diplomatic, economic, political, and military leadership.

Salonika

Before World War II, Salonika (Thessaloniki) had the largest Jewish community in Greece.&...

Kazimiera Banach Justynowa

Kazimiera was born to Roman Catholic parents in the town of Mierzen. After graduating from a teacher's college in Staniatki, she married Wincenty Justyna, a secondary school teacher. The couple settled in the small industrial city of Piotrkow Trybunalski and raised three children, Jerzy (a boy), Danuta and Maria. Kazimiera worked as a school teacher. 1933-39: With their combined incomes the Justynas were able to buy a plot of land and build a house. The Germans invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and…

1946–1948: Key Dates

Explore a timeline of key events during 1946-1948. Learn about the aftermath of the Holocaust and the obstacles survivors faced.

Pogroms

Background Pogroms Pogrom is a Russian word meaning “to wreak havoc, to demolish violently.” Historically, the term refers to violent attacks by local non-Jewish populations on Jews in the Russian Empire and in other countries. The first such incident to be labeled a pogrom is believed to be anti-Jewish rioting in Odessa in 1821. As a descriptive term, “pogrom” came into common usage with extensive anti-Jewish riots that swept the southern and western provinces of the Russian Empire in…

D-Day

The D-Day invasion was the largest amphibious attack in history. Read articles and browse photos and videos of Allied forces invading Normandy on June 6, 1944.

Wartime Fate of the Passengers of the St. Louis

In May 1939, the St. Louis set sail from Germany to Cuba. Most of the passengers, fleeing Nazi Germany, were denied entry. Learn more about their fates.

Introduction to the Holocaust

Learn about the Holocaust, the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.

Dezso Rozsa

Dezso was from a Jewish family in Hungary's capital, Budapest. His father had been a violinist. Dezso earned a university degree in English, and became a language teacher. He wrote a number of high school grammar textbooks. In 1914 he married Iren Hajdu, who was a mathematician. The couple had two children; a daughter, Eva, born in 1918, and a son, Pal, born seven years later. 1933-39: Dezso fears for the worst now that the antisemitic Prime Minister Teleki has taken power again. Nineteen years ago, in…

Armed Jewish Resistance: Partisans

Facing overwhelming odds, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners.

Protocols of the Elders of Zion

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is the most widely distributed antisemitic publication of modern times. Although repeatedly discredited, it continues to circulate.

How Were the Crimes Defined?

Today, a body of international criminal law exists to prosecute perpetrators of mass atrocities. Learn about principles and precedents from the Nuremberg Charter and the IMT.

Sachsenhausen

In July 1936, the SS opened the Sachsenhausen concentration camp as the principal concentration camp for the Berlin area.

Jewish Badge: During the Nazi Era

Nazi officials implemented the Jewish badge as a key element in their plan to persecute and eventually destroy the Jewish population of Europe. Learn more

History of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum opened in April 1993. Explore the history of the nation's memorial to the millions murdered during the Holocaust.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria joined the Axis alliance on March 1, 1941, after the Germans offered them Greek territory in Thrace. Learn about Bulgaria during WWII and the Holocaust.

Ravensbrück

Learn about conditions and the treatment of prisoners in Ravensbrück, the largest concentration camp for women in the German Reich.

Freemasonry under the Nazi Regime

Nazi propaganda linked Jews and Freemasons and claimed there was a “Jewish-Masonic” conspiracy. Learn more about Freemasonry under the Nazi regime.

Jozef Tiso

Jozef Tiso was a Slovak politician and a Roman Catholic priest. From 1939 to 1945, he was the president of the Slovak Republic, one of Nazi Germany’s allies.

The Press in the Third Reich

Establishing Control of the Press When Adolf Hitler took power in 1933, the Nazis controlled less than three percent of Germany’s 4,700 papers. The elimination of the German multi-party political system brought about the demise of hundreds of newspapers produced by outlawed political parties. It also allowed the state to seize the printing plants and equipment of the Communist and Social Democratic Parties, which were often turned over directly to the Nazi Party. In the following months, the Nazis…

Dietrich Bonhoeffer

German pastor and theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer was an early critic of the Nazi regime. He was arrested in 1943 and executed in the Flossenbürg camp in 1945.

Invasion of Poland, Fall 1939

The German invasion of Poland in the fall of 1939 triggered WWII. Learn more about key dates and events, causes, and related Holocaust history.

The Great Depression

Learn about causes, scope, and impacts of the Great Depression, including how it played a role in Adolf Hitler's emergence as a viable political leader in Germany.

Nazis enter Danzig

Members of the SA enter Danzig in 1939. Germany annexed most of western Poland and Danzig within weeks of the German invasion of Poland.

Erich Kästner

Erich Kästner was a popular political satirist and left-liberal author whose works were burned under the Nazi regime in 1933. Learn more.

Sephardi Jews during the Holocaust

Learn about the fate of Sephardi Jewish communities during the Holocaust. On the eve of WWII, Europe's Sephardi Jews lived mostly in the Balkan countries.

US Army Trials in Postwar Germany

From 1945 to 1947, the US Army tried a variety of officials, camp personnel, and German civilians accused of war crimes and mass atrocities against Allied civilians and prisoners of war.

Richard Nikolaus Coudenhove-Kalergi

Count Richard Nikolaus Coudenhove-Kalergi founded the "Pan-Europe" movement. His works were tossed into the flames during the Nazi book burnings of 1933.

Hermann Göring

Brief overview of the charges against Hermann Göring, highest ranking Nazi official tried during the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.

Friedrich Wilhelm Förster

Friedrich Wilhelm Förster was an author, educator, and philosopher. In 1933, his works were denounced as subversive and burned in Nazi Germany. Learn more.

1935: Key Dates

Explore a timeline of key events in Nazi Germany during 1935.

1936: Key Dates

Explore a timeline of key events in Nazi Germany during 1936.

Balkan Campaign, Spring 1941

In April 1941, Germany invaded and subdued the Balkan countries of Yugoslavia and Greece. These countries were then occupied and administered by Axis members. Read more.

Battle of the Bulge: Photographs

Launched on December 16, 1945, the Battle of the Bulge was the last major German military offensive in western Europe. By January 1945, the German military effort had failed.

Timeline of Events

Explore a timeline of events that occurred before, during, and after the Holocaust.

Gerda Haas describes prewar Jewish community life in Ansbach

Gerda was raised in a religious family in the small town of Ansbach, Germany, where her father was the Jewish butcher. She attended German schools until 1936, and then moved to Berlin to attend a Jewish school. She returned to her hometown after Kristallnacht in November 1938. Her family was then ordered to move to Munich, and in July 1939 her father left for England and then the United States. He was unable to arrange for the rest of his family to join him. Gerda moved to Berlin in 1939 to study nursing.…

Liberation: An Overview

Learn more about the end of Nazi tyranny in Europe and the liberation of camps and other sites of Nazi crimes. This article includes dates of liberation of some of the camps.

Remaining Jewish Population of Europe in 1945

Before the Nazi rise to power in 1933, Europe had a vibrant, established, and diverse Jewish culture. By 1945, two out of every three European Jews had been killed.

Ernst Kaltenbrunner

Brief overview of the charges against Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Reich Security Main Office leader, during the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.

John Dos Passos

John Dos Passos was an American author who served in World War I. During the Nazi book burnings of 1933, his works were burned for their leftist leanings.

Western Desert Campaign: Egypt and Libya

Fighting began in North Africa on September 13, 1940, when Marshal Rodolfo Graziani's Italian 10th Army launched an attack from its bases in Libya on outnumbered British forces in western Egypt. A successful British counterattack initiated on December 9, 1940, led by General Sir Archibald Wavell, resulted in Italian defeat at Tobruk (Tubruq) in eastern Libya on January 22, 1941. On February 12, 1941, German General Erwin Rommel arrived in Libya to take command of troops sent to reinforce Germany's Italian…

Operation Torch: The Anglo-American Invasion of French North Africa

The Operation Operation Torch was the Anglo-American invasion of French Morocco and Algeria during the North African Campaign of World War II. It began on November 8 and concluded on November 16, 1942. It resulted from an uneasy compromise between the Western Allies, and was intended to relieve pressure on the Soviet Union by imperiling Axis forces in the region and by enabling an invasion of Southern Europe in 1943. Commanded by General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the operation was designed as a pincer…

The United States and the Nazi Threat: 1933–37

Learn about responses in the United States to reports about Nazi anti-Jewish policies and violence against Jews from 1933–37.

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Maria Justyna

Maria was born to Roman Catholic parents in the industrial town of Piotrkow Trybunalski in central Poland. Her father and mother were school teachers. Maria attended grade school and secondary school in Piotrkow. She and her older sister, Danuta, became friends with two Jewish girls, Sabina and Helena Szwarc. Although their houses were more than a mile apart, the girls often played together. 1933-39: The Germans invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and occupied Piotrkow four days later. Most schooling for…

SS Police State - Photograph