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German tanks entering Czechoslovakia

German tanks cross the Czech border, in violation of the 1938 Munich agreement. Pohorelice, Czechoslovakia, March 15, 1939.

German troops in Prague

German occupation troops march through the streets of Prague. Czechoslovakia, March 15, 1939.

Hitler enters Memel

Hitler enters Memel following the German annexation of Memel from Lithuania. The banner states that "This land will remain forever German." Memel, March 1939.

Italy, camps for displaced persons

Jewish "illegal" immigration, 1945-1947

Jewish immigration to Israel, 1948-1950

European Jewish population distribution, ca. 1950

Mauthausen environs, April 1945

A map of the Mauthausen concentration camp environs in April 1945.

Mauthausen concentration camp, April 1945

A map of the Mauthausen concentration camp in April 1945.

Lodz - Photographs

German troops occupied Lodz one week after Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. In February 1940, the Germans established a ghetto there, first confining 160,000 Jews into a small area and later deporting Jews and Roma (Gypsies) there as w...

Sobibor - ID Cards/Oral Histories

The Sobibor killing center in German-occupied Poland was one of four camps linked to Operation Reinhard. At least 170,000 people were murdered at Sobibor. On October 14, 1943, the camp's Jewish prisoners launched an uprising. After the revolt, Sob...

Classification System in Nazi Concentration Camps - Photograph

The SS created a system of marking prisoners in concentration camps. Color-coded badges were sewn onto uniforms and identified the reason for a person's imprisonment. This system began in 1937–1938 and had some variat...

Who Tried the Case? - Photograph

How Were the Crimes Defined? - Artifact/Document

How to Prosecute Unprecedented Crimes? - Photograph

How to Prosecute Unprecedented Crimes? - Artifact/Document

Feldafing Displaced Persons Camp - Photographs

From 1945 to 1952, more than 250,000 Jewish displaced persons lived in camps and urban centers in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Located in Germany, Feldafing was the first all-Jewish displaced persons camp.

Lodz - Animated Maps/Maps

German troops occupied Lodz one week after Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. In early 1940, the Germans established a ghetto in a small area in the northeast section of the city. 

Minsk - Photographs

German authorities established a ghetto in Minsk in July 1941, shortly after German forces occupied the city. About 80,000 Jews were initially crowded into the ghetto, with 24,000 more people deported there later that year. In August 1941, the Germans began mass killing operations against the residents of the ghetto.

Minsk - ID Cards

The Minsk ghetto was established in July 1941 shortly after German forces occupied the city. These personal histories describe the experiences of Jewish men, women, and children who were forced into the Minsk ghetto.

Sobibor - Maps

The Sobibor killing center in German-occupied Poland was one of four camps linked to Operation Reinhard. On October 14, 1943, Jewish prisoners in the camp launched an uprising. After the revolt, Sobibor was dismantled. At least 170,000 people were...

Treblinka - Photographs

The Treblinka killing center opened in July 1942 and was dismantled in September 1943. An estimated 925,000 Jews, as well as an unknown number of Poles, Roma, and Soviet POWs, were murdered there.

Ravensbrück - Maps

The Ravensbrück concentration camp was the largest concentration camp for women in the German Reich.

Natzweiler-Struthof - Maps

Located in eastern France, the Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp was one of the smaller camps built by the Germans. From May 1941 to March 1945, between 19,000 and 20,000 people were murdered in the Natzweiler-Struthof camp system.

German American Bund - Photographs

The German-American Bund was an antisemitic, pro-Nazi group for Americans of German descent.

Displaced children in Kloster Indersdorf

Oneg Shabbat archive

The Oneg Shabbat underground archive was the secret archive of the Warsaw ghetto. 

Minsk - Maps

German authorities established a ghetto in Minsk in July 1941, shortly after German forces occupied the city. About 80,000 Jews were initially crowded into the ghetto, with 24,000 more people deported there later that year. In August 1941, the Germans began mass killing operations against the residents of the ghetto.

The “Gypsy camp” in Hodonín u Kunštátu

The “Gypsy camp” in Hodonín u Kunštátu (Hodonin bei Kunstadt), Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic), 1942.

German Jews hoping to emigrate to Palestine

German Jews trying to emigrate to Palestine form long lines in front of the Palestine and Orient Travel Agency. Berlin, Germany, January 22, 1939.

Deportation from Sighet

In May 1944, the entire Jewish population of Sighet was deported to Auschwitz. Most individuals were gassed upon arrival.

David Stoliar describes engine troubles experienced by the Struma upon leaving Constanta, Romania

In 1936, David moved to Bucharest to live with his father. As Romania came under German influence, Romanian authorities introduced increasingly harsh measures against Jews. Antisemitic agitation increased and Jews came under attack in the streets of Bucharest and in other public places. David's father decided David should leave the country and arranged passage for him to Palestine. In December 1941, David left Romania from Constanta, a port city on the Black Sea, on the Struma, an old cattle boat. The…

Ruth Gabriele Silten

Gabriele was the only child of Jewish parents living in the German capital of Berlin. Her grandfather owned a pharmacy and a pharmaceuticals factory, where Gabriele's father also made his living. 1933-39: In 1938 the Nazis forced Ruth's grandfather to sell his factory and pharmacy for very little money to an "Aryan" German. After that, her father decided they should move to Amsterdam where it was safer for Jews. She was 5 years old and wanted to stay in Berlin. She didn't understand why she had to leave…

Wolf Himmelfarb

Wolf was the eldest of three children born to Yiddish-speaking, religious Jewish parents in Koprzewnica, a small town in southern Poland. His father ran a grocery store, where his mother would help out on Thursdays. The store was located in the house of Wolf's grandmother, and Wolf, his brother, Izik, and sister, Chana, would play in a large yard in the back. 1933-39: Wolf started attending school a year late, at 8, so that he and his younger brother could share the same books. In the third grade, Jewish…

Genya Rotenberg

Genya and her brother, Nahum, were raised by Jewish parents in Lodz, Poland's second-largest city and an industrial center. Before the war, one-third of Lodz's inhabitants were Jewish. Genya's parents placed emphasis on their children's education. 1933-39: In 1939, when Genya was 9, the Germans occupied Lodz. After that, it was forbidden for "Jews, Gypsies and dogs" to be in public places. Since Jews weren't allowed to go to school, her parents arranged to tutor her secretly at home, but she couldn't keep…

Odon Jerzy Wos

Odon was the third of four children born to Roman Catholic parents in Warsaw, Poland's capital. His father had worked for the Polish merchant marine before starting his own textile business in 1930. When Odon was 8, the family moved to a comfortable apartment located near the Royal Castle and Vistula River. In 1932 Odon began attending grade school. 1933-39: In September 1938 Odon began secondary school. Sensing growing danger from Germany, his father advised him to study German in addition to French. On…

Eva Brigitte Marum

Eva Brigitte was the youngest of three children born to German-Jewish parents in the capital of Baden, a state along the Rhine River in southwestern Germany. Known as Brigitte by her friends and classmates, and as "Brix" by her family, she grew up in a secular household and attended public schools. Her father was a local Social Democratic party leader. 1933-39: In 1933 the Nazis came to the Marum's house and arrested Eva's father because he was an active anti-Nazi. Two months later she suddenly saw him…

Renate Guttmann

Renate, her twin brother, Rene, and their German-Jewish parents lived in Prague. Shortly before the twins were born, Renate's parents had fled Dresden, Germany, to escape the Nazi government's policies against Jews. Before leaving Germany to live in Czechoslovakia, Renate's father, Herbert, worked in the import-export business. Her mother, Ita, was an accountant. 1933-39: Renate's family lived in a six-story apartment building along the #22 trolley line in Prague. A long, steep flight of stairs led up to…

Jan-Peter Pfeffer

Jan-Peter's father, Heinz, was a German-Jewish refugee who married Henriette De Leeuw, a Dutch-Jewish woman. Frightened by the Nazi dictatorship and the murder of Heinz's uncle in a concentration camp, they immigrated to the Netherlands when Henriette was nine months pregnant. They settled in Amsterdam. 1933-39: Jan-Peter was born soon after his parents arrived in the Netherlands. He was 18 months old when Tommy, his baby brother, was born. In 1939 the parents and brother of Jan-Peter's father joined them…

Rene Guttmann

Rene, his twin sister, Renate, and their German-Jewish parents lived in Prague. Shortly before the twins were born, Rene's parents had fled Dresden, Germany, to escape the Nazi government's policies against Jews. Before leaving Germany to live in Czechoslovakia, Rene's father, Herbert, had worked in the import-export business. His mother, Ita, was an accountant. 1933-39: Rene's family lived in a six-story apartment building along the #22 trolley line in Prague. A long, steep flight of stairs led up to…

Daniel Schwarzwald

Daniel, usually known as Danek, was one of three children born to Raphael and Amalia Schwarzwald, a Jewish couple living in a village near Lvov. When he was a young boy, his family moved to Lvov, where he went on to attend secondary school and a business college. Daniel opened a lumber export business. He traveled extensively and could speak Polish, German, Russian, Yiddish and English. 1933-39: Business prospered and in 1935 Daniel married Laura Litwak and settled in an apartment in a Christian section…

Chaia Gurvitz

From a Jewish family, Chaia lived outside Kovno, a city with a large Jewish population that was renowned for its Hebrew school system. Chaia ran a grocery store with her husband, a retired shoemaker, and their daughter Yenta. 1933-39:  Chaia is expecting her daughter Feiga, Feiga's husband, Josef, and her grandson, Abraham, for dinner. Feiga works so hard all week in her beauty shop, Chaia is glad she can help out by preparing the big Sunday meal. She has baked a special cake for Abe. Chaia hopes the…

Johanna (Hanne) Hirsch

Hanne was born to a Jewish family in the German city of Karlsruhe. Her father, Max, was a photographer. When he died in 1925, Hanne's mother, Ella, continued to maintain his studio. In 1930 Hanne began public school. 1933-39: In April 1933 Hanne's family's studio, like the other Jewish businesses in Karlsruhe, was plastered with signs during the anti-Jewish boycott: "Don't buy from Jews." At school, a classmate made Hanne so furious with her taunts that she ripped her sweater. After the November 1938…

Eva Braun Levine

Eva was the second daughter of five children born to Jewish parents. Her father dealt in real estate, and the family owned the apartment building in which they lived. The building had an elevator, a luxury for that time. Eva finished high school, and she began working for her father and studying history at a small local university. 1933-39: Nightlife for young people was lively in Lodz, and Eva often went dancing with her boyfriend, Herman. In 1939 they married. Then the Germans invaded. One day, the…

Arthur Menke

Arthur was born to a Jewish family in Germany's largest port city, Hamburg. His father owned a small factory that manufactured rubber stamps. In the early 1930s, Hamburg was home to the fourth largest Jewish community in Germany, which had numerous social and cultural institutions. 1933-39: By 1935 conditions for Hamburg's Jews were bad. Arthur's family was moved to another part of town and in 1938, the Nazis seized his father's business. On national holidays many German citizens unfurled red, white and…

Rachel Saleschutz

Rachel was the eighth child born to Hasidic Jewish parents living in Kolbuszowa. She spoke English, Hebrew and German in addition to Polish and Yiddish. At school, Rachel's beautiful singing voice earned her leading roles in plays even though Jewish children were rarely given parts. Rachel and her brother Naftali were active in a Zionist scout organization called Ha-No'ar ha-Zioni. 1933-39: In 1933 Rachel started writing weekly postcards to her brother in Palestine. When the cards arrived, immigrants from…

Isadore Frenkiel

Isadore and his wife, Sossia, had seven sons. The Frenkiels, a religious Jewish family, lived in a one-room apartment in a town near Warsaw called Gabin. Like most Jewish families in Gabin, they lived in the town's center, near the synagogue. Isadore was a self-employed cap maker, selling his caps at the town's weekly market. He also fashioned caps for the police and military. 1933-39: Isadore felt the pinch of the Depression, but although business was poor, he was able to provide for his family. Shortly…

Agnes Mandl

When Agnes was a teenager, she attended Budapest's prestigious Baar Madas private school, run by the Hungarian Reformed Church. Although she was the only Jewish student there, Agnes' parents believed that the superior education at the school was important for their daughter. Agnes' father, a textile importer, encouraged his daughter to think for herself. 1933-39: In 1936 Agnes studied educational techniques with Signora Maria Montessori in Italy and earned a diploma so she could teach. Hoping to improve…

Klara Gottfried Reif

Klara Gottfried Reif's parents, Herschel and Ethel Gottfried, owned a flour mill and a general store in a small Polish town. Klara could speak five languages. As a young woman, she took an interest in fashion, and enjoyed travelling. On a trip to Vienna, she met Dr. Gerson Reif, a young dentist. After marrying in 1925, the couple settled in Vienna and the first of their two children was born in 1927. 1933-39: After the Germans annexed Austria in 1938, they effectively prevented Jewish dentists from…

Leo Hanin

Leo's Jewish family lived in Vilna, which in 1913 was part of the Russian Empire. In 1916, fearing revolution, his family left for Harbin in northern China, a city with a well-organized Jewish community. There Leo joined a Zionist group and studied Jewish history, and for two years attended a Jewish primary school and learned Hebrew. He then studied at a Russian secondary school in Harbin. 1933-39: When Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931 and conditions in Harbin deteriorated, Leo's parents sent him to…