During the Holocaust, the Nazis and their allies imprisoned millions of Jews in ghettos. In the ghettos, Jews experienced starvation and overcrowding. They endured humiliation, abuse, and violence. In many ghettos, Jews tried to resist Nazi persecution. They also tried to maintain their sense of dignity and community.
Jewish children with bowls of soup in the Warsaw ghetto in German-occupied Poland, ca. 1940.
Item View![A Jewish man and child at forced labor in a factory in the Lodz ghetto. [LCID: 74343]](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/images/large/d52fdce3-92e4-4b2c-90df-b69803c61c56.jpeg "A Jewish man and child at forced labor in a factory in the Lodz ghetto. [LCID: 74343]")
A Jewish man and child in a factory in the Łódź ghetto in German-occupied Poland, 1940-1944.
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![A child vendor among those selling miscellaneous wares at the market in the Lodz ghetto. [LCID: 51128]](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/images/large/d0b3a49f-466e-4376-ade3-691488bec204.jpeg "A child vendor among those selling miscellaneous wares at the market in the Lodz ghetto. [LCID: 51128]")
A child vendor among those selling miscellaneous wares at the market in the Łódź ghetto in German-occupied Poland, ca. 1941.
Item ViewAbraham Lewent (1924–2002) was born in Warsaw, Poland in 1924. The Lewent family was living in Warsaw when the Germans invaded Poland in September 1939. Later, the Lewents were confined to the Warsaw ghetto. In summer 1942, Abraham's mother and three younger sisters were rounded up during the Great Action—the mass deportation of Jews from the Warsaw ghetto to the Treblinka killing center. They were likely killed upon arrival. Abraham was not caught in the Great Action, because during the round up he hid in a small space in the ceiling. Afterwards, Abraham found a forced labor assignment at a nearby airfield. He returned to the ghetto in December 1942, reuniting with his father. During the Warsaw ghetto uprising in April–May 1943, Abraham and his father saw the ghetto being burned to the ground. They were eventually rounded up and sent to the Lublin concentration camp (called Majdanek). Abraham's father died there. Later, Abraham was sent to the Skarżysko-Kamienna labor camp, then to Buchenwald and several other camps. US troops liberated Abraham from a train in April 1945.
Item ViewGerda Weissmann Klein (1924-2022) was born on May 8, 1924 in Bielsko, Poland. Following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Gerda's brother, Arthur, and other Jewish men were ordered to report for forced labor. Eventually, Gerda and her parents learned that this had been a ruse. The men had actually been deported east in freight trains and forced across the border into Soviet occupied territory. In Bielsko, Nazi German authorities imposed anti-Jewish measures. Eventually, Gerda and her parents, Helene and Julius, were imprisoned in the Bielsko ghetto.
In June 1942, when the Germans liquidated the ghetto, Gerda was separated from her parents. She was sent to the Bolkenhain labor camp, where she was forced to work in a textile factory. From there, she was transferred to several other camps before being forced on a death march. American soldiers liberated her in early May 1945, in the Czech town of Volary. In 1946, she married Kurt Klein, one of her liberators. Klein was a German Jew who had immigrated to the United States from Germany in 1937. Gerda's parents and brother did not survive the Holocaust.
Item View![Paula Garfinkel [LCID: 1953]](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/images/large/136e2969-c925-4b32-8fa3-26336a6ec9c5.gif "Paula Garfinkel [LCID: 1953]")
Paula was one of four children born to a religious Jewish family in Lodz, an industrial city with a large Jewish population. As a child, Paula attended public schools and was tutored at home in Jewish studies three times a week. Her father owned a furniture store.
1933-39: Paula, her brothers, and sisters spent a lot of time at the clubhouse of their Zionist group, Gordonia. Their group believed in humanistic values, Jewish self-labor, and in building a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Paula liked to work with her hands and did a lot of knitting, crocheting, and sewing. In September 1939, when she was in secondary school, her studies were cut short when Germany invaded Poland and seized Lodz on September 8th.
1940-44: In early 1940 Paula's family was forcibly relocated to the Lodz ghetto, where they were assigned one room for all six of them. Food was the main problem. At the women's clothing factory where Paula worked, she at least got some soup for lunch. But her family desperately needed to find more food for her younger brother, who was very sick and bleeding internally. From the window at her factory she looked out at a potato field. Knowing that if she was caught, she'd be shot, she crept out one night to the field, dug up as many potatoes as she could, and ran home.
In 1944 Paula was deported to Bremen, Germany, as a forced laborer. She was freed in the Bergen-Belsen camp in 1945. After the war, she immigrated to the United States.
Item View![Idzia Pienknawiesz [LCID: 5153]](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/images/large/7bf694ff-04a4-44d9-8d7d-69e427d4d301.gif "Idzia Pienknawiesz [LCID: 5153]")
Idzia was the older of two girls born to Jewish parents who lived 35 miles east of Warsaw in the small predominantly Jewish town of Kaluszyn. Idzia's father owned a liquor store and her mother was a housewife. Idzia was close friends with a group of Jewish teenagers who went to the same public school and spent much of their free time and vacations together.
1933-39: Normally, Idzia goes out with her friends on pleasant summer evenings. They like to stroll down the main street together and visit the sweets shop. Sometimes they go to the school building, which is open at night for recreational activities, and play dominoes or checkers. But now, everyone is afraid that war will break out and is staying at home. Every day there's more news about border skirmishes between Polish and German forces.
1940-42: The Germans have occupied Kaluszyn. Acting under German orders, the town mayor has chosen a Jewish council which includes Idzia's father and her friend Majlich's father. They, in turn, chose Majlich, Idzia, and some other young adults to work on the Jewish sanitation committee. One of Idzia's jobs is to take women to the one remaining Jewish bathing facility in town so that they can wash themselves. They've already seen several cases of lice-borne typhus, and they're trying to limit the spread of the deadly disease.
In September 1942 Idzia's parents and some 3,000 other Jews were deported to a killing center. That December, 22-year-old Idzia was also deported to the same camp, where she perished.
Item View![David J. Selznik [LCID: 1764]](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/images/large/345d5c56-16ba-464e-a465-e3965174a3cd.gif "David J. Selznik [LCID: 1764]")
The village in Lithuania where David grew up was located near the Latvian border. His father was a peddler. At age 6, David was sent to Ukmerge, a town known to Jews by its Russian name, Vilkomir, to study traditional Jewish texts at the rabbinical academy there. Six years later, David was called to return home to head the Selznik family because his father had died.
1933-39: David lost his job in 1933, so he left Lithuania and went to the United States and then Portugal. But in 1936 the Baltic states were vulnerable to Stalin and Hitler, and David decided to return home to help his mother and sisters, who had since moved to the city of Kovno. The threat of war loomed over them, but the Jews could not leave. Through business contacts he found a job in a retail outlet for office supplies.
1940-44: In summer 1941 the Germans occupied Kovno and David was forced into a ghetto. Conditions worsened in 1943. The murder of Jews in the ghetto escalated in March 1944. He saw some Ukrainians and Lithuanians helping the Nazis. David watched as they took children to the top floor of a building and dropped them out the window to a guard who stood on the street. The guard then picked them up and knocked their heads against the wall until each child was dead.
In 1944 David fled from a transport as it left the ghetto and hid in a nearby forest for three weeks until the area was liberated. He immigrated to the United States in 1949.
Item ViewAs a young man, Beno used his foreign language skills to land small movie roles. He and his family were deported to the Lodz ghetto, where they struggled daily to find food. In the underground, Beno became an expert at derailing trains. The family was sent to Auschwitz and was separated. All but Beno and one sister, whom he found after the war, died. Beno survived a series of camps and later helped to track war criminals.
Item View![Doll from the Krakow ghetto [LCID: 1998mdfg]](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/images/large/a9a31c9b-93d4-4087-b7b4-f63cfc423581.jpeg "Doll from the Krakow ghetto [LCID: 1998mdfg]")
Zofia Burowska (Chorowicz) donated this doll, which dates from the 1930s, to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Zofia's parents gave her the doll before the war and she kept it with her in the Wolbrum and Krakow ghettos, Poland. The doll and some of her family's other belongings were left with non-Jewish friends for safekeeping. Zofia was deported to a forced-labor camp for Jews near Krakow, to the Skarzysko-Kamienna camp (also in Poland), and then to the Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany, where she was liberated. After the war, she returned to Krakow and retrieved her doll.
Item View![Major ghettos in occupied Europe [LCID: eur74910]](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/images/large/94820267-20ca-4726-a90b-6abe63ac3419.gif "Major ghettos in occupied Europe [LCID: eur74910]")
During the Holocaust, the Nazis and their allies imprisoned Jewish people in ghettos. Ghettos were areas of cities or towns where authorities forced Jews to live under miserable conditions separated from the non-Jewish population.
In total, the Nazis and their allies (including Hungary and Romania) established more than 1,300 ghettos. Most of these ghettos were located in German-occupied Poland, the German-occupied Baltic states, and the occupied Soviet Union. Additionally, the Germans created the Theresienstadt (Terezín) ghetto in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (the occupied Czech lands) and several ghettos in Salonika (Thessaloniki) in German-occupied Greece. There were no ghettos in western Europe.
Ghettos were a key means of isolating, controlling, and ultimately murdering millions of Jews.
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