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The Nazis sealed the Warsaw ghetto in mid-November 1940. German-induced overcrowding and food shortages led to an extremely high mortality rate in the ghetto. Almost 30 percent of the population of Warsaw was packed into 2.4 percent of the city's area. The Germans set a food ration for Jews at just 181 calories a day. By August 1941, more than 5,000 people a month succumbed to starvation and disease.
Defendant Julius Streicher in his prison cell at Nuremberg. For his influential role in inciting hatred and violence, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg indicated Streicher on count four, crimes against humanity. Streicher was found guilty and sentenced to death. He was hanged on October 16, 1946.
Portrait of Ernest Hemingway by Helen Pierce Breaker. Paris, France, ca. 1928. In 1933, Nazi students at more than 30 German universities pillaged libraries in search of books they considered to be "un-German." Among the literary and political writings they threw into the flames were the works of Ernest Hemingway.
Despite the inaction of most Europeans and the collaboration of many in the persecution and murder of Jews, some individuals and networks from all social and religious backgrounds aided Jews. Learn more.
In an attempt to prevent the German annexation of Austria, Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg called a plebiscite (referendum) on Austrian independence. On March 11, 1938, the Germans pressured Schuschnigg to cancel the plebiscite and resign. This German newsreel footage from March and April 1938 served as propaganda for the Nazi annexation of Austria. It begins with images of pro-Nazi residents in Graz expressing their opposition to Schuschnigg's plebiscite. It also includes footage after…
Rabbi Abraham Klausner was a US Army military chaplain. He arrived in the Dachau concentration camp in May 1945. He was attached to the 116th evacuation hospital unit and worked for about five years in displaced persons camps, assisting Jewish survivors.
Like many other Jews, the Lewents were confined to the Warsaw ghetto. In 1942, as Abraham hid in a crawl space, the Germans seized his mother and sisters in a raid. They perished. He was deployed for forced labor nearby, but escaped to return to his father in the ghetto. In 1943, the two were deported to Majdanek, where Abraham's father died. Abraham later was sent to Skarzysko, Buchenwald, Schlieben, Bisingen, and Dachau. US troops liberated Abraham as the Germans evacuated prisoners.
After camp liberation, one of the mass graves at the Bergen-Belsen camp. Germany, after April 15, 1945.
Jews from the Warsaw ghetto are marched through the ghetto during deportation. Warsaw, Poland, 1942–43.
Stall of a street vendor selling old Hebrew books. Warsaw ghetto, Poland, February 1941.
Spectators cheer passing SA formations during a Reichsparteitag (Reich Party Day) parade in Nuremberg.
Back side of an entry pass to the court building at the International Military Tribunal. This pass was issued to a U.S. military guard. The pass is printed in each of the IMT's four official languages.
Courtroom sketch drawn during the International Military Tribunal by American artist Edward Vebell. The drawing's title is "British Courier for the Correspondents." 1945.
A private Jewish home vandalized during Kristallnacht (the "Night of Broken Glass" pogrom). Vienna, Austria, November 10, 1938.
Site where members of Einsatzgruppe A and Estonian collaborators carried out a mass execution of Jews in September 1941. Kalevi-Liiva, Estonia, after September 1944.
SS personnel stand guard while Lodz ghetto police board Jews onto a deportation train bound for Chelmno or Auschwitz. Lodz, Poland, between May and August 1944.
Mourners crowd around a narrow trench as coffins of pogrom victims are placed in a common grave, following a mass burial service. Kielce, Poland, after July 4, 1946.
Jews assembled in the Siedlce ghetto during a deportation are forced to march toward the railway station. Siedlce, Poland, August 21–24, 1942.
Jewish orphans arrive at the Marseille railroad station, en route to Palestine as part of postwar Brihah movement. Marseille, France, March 25, 1948.
Interior designer from Duesseldorf who was charged with homosexuality and imprisoned for 18 months. Duesseldorf, Germany, date uncertain.
Official identification tag (warrant badge) for the Criminal Police (Kriminalpolizei or Kripo), the detective police force of Nazi Germany. These badges were generally suspended from a chain and included the officer's identification number on the reverse.
Reverse of the official identification tag (warrant badge) for the Kriminalpolizei or Kripo, the detective police force of Nazi Germany. It reads Staatliche Kriminalpolizei (State Criminal Police) and identifies the officer's number as 8409.
In this London Times article, reporter Philip Graves compared passages from Maurice Joly’s Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu (1864) side-by-side with the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in order to prove that the Protocols was plagiarized. Other investigations revealed that one chapter of a Prussian novel, Hermann Goedsche’s Biarritz (1868), also “inspired” the Protocols. Times (London), August 17, 1921.
Survivors of the Dachau concentration camp demonstrate the operation of the crematorium by preparing a corpse to be placed into one of the ovens. Dachau, Germany, April 29–May 10, 1945. This image is among the commonly reproduced and distributed, and often extremely graphic, images of liberation. These photographs provided powerful documentation of the crimes of the Nazi era.
Sisters Eva and Liane Münzer. They were placed in hiding with a devout Catholic couple. In 1944, Eva and Liane were reported to the police as a result of a fight between their rescuers. The husband denounced his wife and the two Jewish girls. The three were immediately arrested and sent to the Westerbork camp. On February 8, 1944, eight- and six-year-old Eva and Liane were deported to Auschwitz, where they were murdered. Photograph taken in The Hague, the Netherlands, 1940.
Selmar and Elsa Biener joined the waiting list for US immigration visas in September 1938. Their waiting list numbers—45,685 and 45,686—indicate the number of people who had registered with the US consulate in Berlin. By September 1938, approximately 220,000 people throughout Germany, mostly Jews, were on the waiting list.
Illustrated page of a child's diary written in a Swiss refugee camp. The diary entry describes how they crossed the border into Switzerland. The text reads, "We came out of the woods and into a clearing: we had to be as quiet as possible because we were so close to the border. Oh! I almost forgot! Before we came out of the woods, they made us stand still for a quarter of an hour while they went to explore the area and to cut through the fence. Fortunately, shortly thereafter, we began to walk again. We saw…
Rare image of the site of the Sobibor killing center, taken from an album of photos belonging to Sobibor deputy camp commandant Johann Niemann.
Deportation of Jews from Bielefeld in Germany to Riga in Latvia. Bielefeld, Germany, December 13, 1941.
Elie Wiesel speaks at the Days of Remembrance ceremony, Washington, DC, 2002.
Soviet prisoners of war at forced labor build a road. Probably in the Soviet Union, about 1943.
Reverse side of a military entry permit allowing Jadwiga Dzido to travel through occupied Germany to appear as a witness in the Medical Case trial at Nuremberg. 1946.
Back side of an entry pass to the prison housing war criminals at the International Military Tribunal. This pass was issued to a U.S. military guard.
White armband with a Star of David embroidered in blue thread, worn by Dina Offman from 1939 until 1941 while in the ghetto in Stopnica, Poland.
From a window in the Reich Chancellery, German president Paul von Hindenburg watches a Nazi torchlight parade in honor of Adolf Hitler's appointment as German Chancellor. Berlin, Germany, January 30, 1933.
The Monte Rosa (right), one of the ships used to deport Jews from Norway to Germany. Norway, 1943.
Public burning of "un-German" books in the Opernplatz (Opera Square) in Berlin. Students, some in SA uniform, march in a torchlight procession. Berlin, May 10, 1933.
Adolf Hitler, the newly appointed chancellor, greets German president Paul von Hindenburg. Berlin, Germany, January 30, 1933.
Jews captured during the Warsaw ghetto uprising. Poland, April 19–May 16, 1943.
Postwar photo of a church in the village of Chelmno. Jews were kept in this building en route to the Chelmno killing center. Chelmno, Poland, June 1945.
Jewish refugee children, part of a Children's Transport (Kindertransport) from Germany, upon arrival in Harwich. Great Britain, December 12, 1938.
Jews in the town of Coesfeld, in northwestern Germany, assembled for deportation to the Riga ghetto. Coesfeld, Germany, December 10, 1941.
An agricultural training farm to prepare Jewish refugees for life in Palestine, sponsored by the Joint Distribution Committee. Fuerth, Germany, June 13, 1946.
The footbridge over Zgierska Street that joined the two parts of the Lodz ghetto. The street itself was not part of the ghetto. Lodz, Poland, ca. 1941.
Regina (third from left) with friends while at the Dueppel displaced persons camp. Berlin, Germany, May 20, 1946.
Page from the antisemitic German children's book, "Trau Keinem Fuchs..." (Trust No Fox in the Green Meadow and No Jew on his Oath). Germany, 1936.
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