Eighty percent of the Jews in Germany (about 400,000 people) held German citizenship. The remainder were mostly Jews of Polish citizenship, many of whom were born in Germany and who had permanent resident status in Germany. In all, about 70 percent of the Jews in Germany lived in urban areas. Fifty percent of all Jews in Germany lived in the 10 largest German cities. The largest Jewish population centers were in Berlin (about 160,000), Frankfurt am Main (about 26,000), Breslau (about 20,000), Hamburg (about 17,000), Cologne (about 15,000), Hannover (about 13,000), and Leipzig (about 12,000). Slightly more than 10,000 Jews lived in the Free City of Danzig. The overwhelming majority of Jews in Austria, some 178,000, lived in the capital city, Vienna. The largest Jewish community in Czechoslovakia was in Prague, the capital city, with 35,000 people.
Signs excluding Jews, such as the sign shown here, were posted in public places (including parks, theaters, movie houses, and restaurants) throughout Nazi Germany. This sign states in German: "Jews are not wanted here."
Barbara was the older of two daughters born to Jewish parents in Germany's capital, Berlin. Barbara's father was a successful lawyer. As soon as Barbara was old enough to walk, he would take her around Berlin to see the sights and tour the city's art museums. Barbara liked to go horseback riding and dreamed of becoming a dancer.
1933-39: After the Nazis came to power in January 1933, it was illegal for Barbara's father to have non-Jewish clients. His law practice quickly folded. Later that year when Barbara was 7, her family moved to the Netherlands where her mother had relatives. Barbara continued her schooling in Amsterdam and quickly learned Dutch. Although they no longer lived in a big house with servants, Barbara enjoyed Amsterdam--it had a much less formal atmosphere than Berlin.
1940-44: The Germans invaded the Netherlands in May 1940. Two years later, when they began to deport many Jews, Barbara's boyfriend, Manfred, told her that these deportations to "labor camps" really meant death. He got false IDs for Barbara and her family, and told her, "If you get called up, don't go." She asked, "What will happen to my parents if I don't go?" "Nothing that wouldn't happen otherwise," he answered. "What do you mean?" Barbara asked, and he responded, "Everyone who goes will be killed. They are all going to die."
Barbara remained in hiding until May 1945, when Amsterdam was liberated by Canadian troops. She immigrated to the United States in November 1947.
Eva Brigitte was the youngest of three children born to German-Jewish parents in the capital of Baden, a state along the Rhine River in southwestern Germany. Known as Brigitte by her friends and classmates, and as "Brix" by her family, she grew up in a secular household and attended public schools. Her father was a local Social Democratic party leader.
1933-39: In 1933 the Nazis came to the Marum's house and arrested Eva's father because he was an active anti-Nazi. Two months later she suddenly saw him "paraded" through the streets in an open truck, being publicly humiliated on his way to a concentration camp. After that Eva refused to remain in school. After her father was killed, she and her mother immigrated to France in April 1934.
1940-43: The French released Eva from an internment camp for enemy aliens, but the situation worsened when the Germans defeated France in 1940. In 1941 Eva's sister obtained steamship tickets and exit visas to America for herself, Eva, and their mother, but as Eva was nine months pregnant the ship officials would not let her board. Alone, and abandoned by the baby's father, Eva gave birth in Marseille. Unable to provide for her son, she placed him in a home for refugee Jewish children in Limoges when he was a year old.
Caught in a roundup in southern France in January 1943, Brigitte was deported to Sobibor, where she perished. Her son survived and was taken to Palestine in 1945.
Jews have lived in Germany since the Middle Ages. And, as in much of Europe, they faced widespread persecution there for many centuries. It was not until the 19th century that Jews in Germany were given the same rights as Christian Germans. By 1933, when the Nazis came to power, Germany’s Jews were well integrated and even assimilated into German society. Despite their integration, Germany’s Jews still maintained a discernible identity and culture.
In 1933, the Jewish population of Germany numbered about 525,000. This was less than one percent of the total German population at the time.
Most Jews in Germany (about 400,000 people) held German citizenship. Many of these Jews came from families who had been in Germany for centuries. These families spoke German as their primary language. Most considered themselves German. In some cases, they had intermarried with non-Jews.
In addition, there were about 100,000 Jews without German citizenship. These were Jews whose families had immigrated to Germany over recent decades. Most had come from eastern Europe. Some of these Jews were also well integrated into German society. Others lived in distinct immigrant communities with their own traditions. Jews in these communities primarily spoke Yiddish, a language used among Jews in Central and Eastern Europe.
While not all Jews in Germany had the same background, German Jews still had a lot in common with each other. Certain characteristics tended to define German-Jewish life. These set the Jewish population slightly apart from the rest of German society.
What was Jewish life like in Germany right before the Nazis came to power?
The majority of Jews (approximately 70%) lived in large cities with populations over 100,000. In comparison, about 50% of non-Jewish Germans lived in towns with fewer than 10,000 people. Nonetheless, some Jews did live in smaller towns and rural areas.
Many Jews rarely or never attended a synagogue. However, most continued to celebrate Jewish holidays. A minority of Jews in Germany strictly observed Jewish religious practices.
Some Jews were poor, while most Jews were middle class. Many worked in or owned small businesses. Jews also worked as tailors, civil servants, doctors, lawyers, journalists, bank clerks, factory workers, professors, and teachers. A few were wealthy business owners.
Many Jews saw themselves as a religious group. They were Germans who practiced Judaism. Others saw themselves as an ethnic group. They were Jews who lived in Germany.
Despite being integrated into German society, Jews faced discrimination in Germany. For example, not all Germans believed that Jews could be German. Some groups, including many university student clubs, banned Jews from membership. Some political parties, including the Nazi Party, were openly anti-Jewish. Negative stereotypes of Jews appeared in the press.
Last Edited: Sep 24, 2025
Author(s):
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC
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