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An illustration in the North-China Daily News following the arrival of a group of Jewish refugees in Shanghai, in Japanese-occupied China. August 24, 1941. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
Today, a body of international criminal law exists to prosecute perpetrators of mass atrocities. Learn about principles and precedents from the Nuremberg Charter and the IMT.
Thomas Buergenthal's experiences as Holocaust survivor and international judge shape his unique perspective on judging war crimes today and justice after genocide.
From 1945 to 1947, the US Army tried a variety of officials, camp personnel, and German civilians accused of war crimes and mass atrocities against Allied civilians and prisoners of war.
View of the mimeograph room in the Palace of Justice at Nuremberg after the transcripts on the sentencing of the defendants in the High Command Case had been run off. The reproduction of documents during the Nuremberg trials, often in four languages, was a huge logistical challenge. Nuremberg, Germany, 1948. (Source record ID: A65III/RA-121-D)
A crowd waits outside the American military court for the announcement of a verdict in the Malmedy war crimes trial of SS soldiers accused of taking part in the massacre of American prisoners of war. Dachau, Germany, July 16, 1946.
US Army staffers organizing stacks of German documents collected by war crimes investigators as evidence for the International Military Tribunal.
Scale used by refugees Masza Swislocki and George Lieberfreund to weigh jars of artificial honey, which they manufactured and sold in the restricted area of Shanghai. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
Soviet officers preside over the opening and exhumation of a mass grave at the Ninth Fort. Photographed by George Kadish. Kovno, Lithuania, 1944.
Estonian auxiliary forces assisted the German Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units) in the mass killing of Jews and others during World War II. Ralf Gerrets and Jaan Viik were both members of the Estonian security police during the German occupation. This footage shows them during their trial, on charges of war crimes, in the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Estonian Supreme Court found both guilty and sentenced them to death in 1961.
Learn about US Army Divisions that have been recognized as liberating units by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and the US Army's Center of Military History.
Leading German officials were tried before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg, Germany. The IMT consisted of judges from Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. The overwhelming majority of post 1945 war crimes trials, however, involved lower-level officials and officers. Among them were concentration camp guards and commandants, police officers, members of the mobile killing squads, and doctors who participated in medical experiments. These war criminals were…
Vidkun Quisling headed the German-controlled government of Norway from 1942-1945. Because of his actions, his name became synonymous with Nazi collaboration.
Chart used by the prosecution in the Doctors' Trial illustrates the organization of the Medical Services of the Wehrmacht (German armed forces). Nuremberg, Germany, December 9, 1946-August 20, 1947.
The inhabitants of Nuremberg watch a parade of US troops through their city. Nuremberg, Germany, 1946.
On May 2, 1945, the 8th Infantry Division and the 82nd Airborne Division encountered the Wöbbelin concentration camp. This photograph shows US troops in the Wöbbelin camp. Germany, May 4–6, 1945.
Efforts to bring the perpetrators of Nazi-era crimes to justice continue into the 21st century. Learn more about postwar trials and their legacies.
US troops with the 102nd Infantry Division at a barn outside Gardelegen, where over 1,000 prisoners were burned alive by the SS. Germany, April 14, 1945.
Before joining the US Army, Zeck—a lawyer—worked for the Board of Economic Warfare. In 1946, he was hired to work on preparations for the Nuremberg trials. In his search for documents pertaining to the I. G. Farben company's involvement in the war, Zeck also met attorney Belle Mayer, his future wife. Both Zeck and Mayer were involved in preparing the indictment in the I. G. Farben trial held at Nuremberg.
War crimes investigators interrogate chief nurse Irmgard Huber in connection with mass killings at the Hadamar Institute, one of main facilities in the Nazi Euthanasia Program. Hadamar, Germany, May 1945.
Before joining the US Army, Zeck—a lawyer—worked for the Board of Economic Warfare. In 1946, he was hired to work on preparations for the Nuremberg trials. In his search for documents pertaining to the I. G. Farben company's involvement in the war, Zeck also met attorney Belle Mayer, his future wife. Both Zeck and Mayer were involved in preparing the indictment in the I. G. Farben trial held at Nuremberg.
US soldiers enter the Buchenwald concentration camp following the liberation of the camp. Buchenwald, Germany, after April 11, 1945.
In Nazi usage, "euthanasia" referred to the killing of those whom the Nazis deemed "unworthy of life." In 1941 the Hadamar psychiatric clinic served as one of the euthanasia killing centers in Germany. Patients selected by German doctors for euthanasia were transferred to Hadamar or one of the other facilities and were killed in gas chambers. Over 10,000 people were gassed at Hadamar before the Euthanasia Program officially ended in August 1941. Although the program had officially ended, killings continued…
A former US prisoner of war (POW), United States Navy Lieutenant Jack Taylor, testifies to the treatment he and other American POWs received in the Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria.
In the 1980s and 1990s, historian Peter Black worked for the US Department of Justice Office of Special Investigations, as part of a team tracking and prosecuting suspected war criminals. Black later served as the Senior Historian at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
Ben was born in a small village in the Carpathian Mountains of Transylvania in Romania. When he was an infant, his family moved to the United States. Ben attended Harvard University, where he studied criminal law. Ben graduated from Harvard University Law School in 1943. He joined a US anti-aircraft artillery battalion that was training in preparation for an Allied invasion of western Europe. At the end of World War II in Europe, Ben was transferred to the war crimes investigation branch of the US Army. He…
Otto Perl poses with his US Army unit at Camp Ritchie, Maryland, circa 1945. Born in Austria, Perl served in the Austrian Army until March 1938, when he was dismissed because he was Jewish. With the help of a friend, Perl was able to obtain a US visa. He reached New York in 1940. Several thousand of the soldiers who trained at Camp Ritchie were Jewish refugees who had immigrated to the United States to escape Nazi persecution.
Before joining the US Army, Zeck—a lawyer—worked for the Board of Economic Warfare. In 1946, he was hired to work on preparations for the Nuremberg trials. In his search for documents pertaining to the I. G. Farben company's involvement in the war, Zeck also met attorney Belle Mayer, his future wife. Both Zeck and Mayer were involved in preparing the indictment in the I. G. Farben trial held at Nuremberg.
The Dachau concentration camp, northwest of Munich, Germany, was the first regular concentration camp the Nazis established in 1933. About twelve years later, on April 29, 1945, US armed forces liberated the camp. There were some 30,000 starving prisoners in the camp at that time. In this footage, soldiers of the US Seventh Army feed and disinfect survivors of the camp.
A US army officer (far right) poses with survivors of the Ohrdruf camp, a subcamp in the Buchenwald camp system. Photograph taken after the liberation of the camp. Ohrdruf, Germany, April 1945.
US Army Signal Corps photographers from Combat Unit 123 photograph ruins in the city of Naumburg, Germany. Photograph taken by J Malan Heslop. April 10, 1945.
An African American soldier is among those members of the Soviet and US armed forces posing here upon the historic meeting of the two armies on the Elbe River. Torgau, Germany, April 26, 1945.
In the summer of 1945, representatives of the victorious Allied nations—the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union—met in London to discuss the formation of an International Military Tribunal. The questions on the table were daunting: how and where such a court would convene, what the criminal charges would be, and which perpetrators would be put on trial. US President Harry S. Truman issued an executive order designating Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jackson to be the US…
Supply ships reinforce US forces on the Philippine island of Leyte during the US invasion of the Philippines. 1944.
A synagogue used as a warehouse for the belongings of deported Jews. Szeged ghetto, Hungary, 1944.
November 5, 1988. On this date, the US ratified the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide.
Members of the US Olympic team—runners Helen Stephens and Jesse Owens—at the Berlin Olympic Games. Germany, August 1936.
US Marines during the final stage of the fight for Peleliu Island in the Pacific theater of war. September 14, 1944.
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