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Exhibition about the Protocols of the Elders of Zion
PhotoAn exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum demonstrated how the Nazis used the Protocols of the Elders of Zion to spread hatred of Jews. Washington, D.C., 2006-2018.
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Railcar
PhotoView of the railcar on display in the Permanent Exhibition of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Washington DC, June 19, 1991. Courtesy of Polskie Koleje Panstwow S.A.
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Dress worn by a hidden child
PhotoA dress worn by hidden child in Baarn, the Netherlands. The dress was donated to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in 2002 by Vera Waisvisz-Reiss.
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Antisemitic isolationist publication
PhotoAn antisemitic isolationist publication in the United States, ca. 1938–41. It blames Jews and Jewish interests for the war and advocates the boycott of Jewish businesses.
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Jewish refugee from Vienna upon arrival in the United Kingdom
PhotoA Jewish refugee girl from Vienna, Austria, upon arrival in Harwich after her arrival in England on a Kindertransport. United Kingdom, December 12, 1938.
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Arriving in New York
PhotoA group of German and Austrian Jewish refugee children arrives in New York on board the SS President Harding. New York, United States, June 3, 1939.
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Jewish refugees in the port of Lisbon
PhotoJewish refugees in Lisbon, including a group of children from internment camps in France, board a ship that will transport them to the United States. Lisbon, Portugal, June 1941.
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Emergency session of the American Jewish Congress
PhotoThe American Jewish Congress holds an emergency session following the Nazi rise to power and subsequent anti-Jewish measures. United States, May 1933.
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Polish Jewish orphans
PhotoPolish Jewish orphans, under the temporary care of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), en route to France and Belgium. Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1946.
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UNRRA welfare officer assists Polish Jewish orphans
PhotoA welfare officer of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) assists Polish Jewish orphans en route to France and Belgium. Prague, Czechoslovakia, probably 1946.
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Jewish refugee orphans at Lindenfels displaced persons camp
PhotoJewish refugee orphans pose for a group photograph at Lindenfels displaced persons camp, administered by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. Germany, April 21, 1948.
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Jewish partisans who operated in forests in Lithuania
PhotoGroup portrait of a Jewish partisan unit operating in the Lithuanian forests. Many of its members had been involved in resistance activities in the Kovno ghetto. Lithuania, 1944.
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Einsatzgruppen trial: Justice Jackson details use of gas vans
FilmAfter the trial of major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, the United States held a series of other war crimes trials at Nuremberg during the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings.The ninth trial of these proceedings, before an American military tribunal, focused on members of the Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units) who had been assigned to kill Jews and other people behind the eastern front. This footage shows US Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson, chief prosecutor for…
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Hans Vogel's diary entry on boarding the refugee ship Nyassa
ArtifactHans Vogel and his family fled Paris following the German invasion. They eventually received papers allowing them to immigrate to the United States. During this time, Hans kept a diary that contains postcards, hand-drawn maps, and other illustrations of their flight. This page describes the lead-up to their departure for the United States, from Lisbon, on the Nyassa. Hans was born in Cologne, Germany on December 3, 1926. The family left Germany in 1936, settling in Paris. They remained there until the…
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Hans Vogel's diary entry describing the voyage to the United States
ArtifactHans Vogel and his family fled Paris following the German invasion. They eventually received papers allowing them to immigrate to the United States. During this time, Hans kept a diary that contains postcards, hand-drawn maps, and other illustrations of their flight. This page describes the voyage on board the Nyassa to the United States. Hans was born in Cologne, Germany on December 3, 1926. The family left Germany in 1936, settling in Paris. They remained there until the outbreak of World War II.…
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Death March from Auschwitz
Timeline EventJanuary 17, 1945. On this date, SS units evacuated prisoners from the Auschwitz camp complex as Soviet forces approached.
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Leon Bass describes his experience as a Black soldier
Oral HistoryLeon Bass was born in Philadelphia, PA in 1925. He joined the US Army in 1943 and served as a member of the all-Black 183rd Engineer Combat Battalion attached to General Patton's Third Army. Leon's unit was involved in the Battle of the Bulge as well as the liberation of Buchenwald. After the war, Leon went on to receive his doctorate, teach, and speak about the Holocaust and racism. In this interview, Leon describes the his frustration with the discord between the United State's condemnation of Nazi…
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Sam Spiegel describes hiding in woods before liberation
Oral HistoryIn 1942, Sam was forced into a ghetto in his hometown and assigned to work in a munitions factory. In 1944 he was transported to Auschwitz and then forced to work in a train factory. He survived eight days on a death march after the evacuation of Auschwitz by the Nazis. He was liberated by Soviet units in January 1945. He lived in a displaced persons camp in Germany where worked for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. In 1947, he immigrated to the United States.
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1939: Key Dates
ArticleExplore a timeline of key events during 1939 in the history of Nazi Germany, World War II, and the Holocaust.
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Vittel
ArticleGerman authorities established the Vittel internment camp in occupied France in 1941. It belonged to the complex of POW camps designated Frontstalag 194.
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German Military Oaths
ArticleIn Nazi Germany, German military personnel swore an oath directly to Adolf Hitler. Learn about the oath and its impact.
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Return to Europe of the St. Louis
ArticleIn May 1939, the St. Louis set sail from Germany to Cuba. Most of the passengers, fleeing Nazi Germany, were denied entry. Learn more about their fates.
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Wannsee Conference and the "Final Solution"
ArticleAt the Wannsee conference of January 1942, Nazi Party and German government officials gathered to coordinate implementation of the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question.”
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Josef Nassy
ArticleA Black expatriate artist living in Belgium upon the outbreak of WWII, Josef Nassy was held in German internment camps during the war. Learn about his experiences.
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Eduard Schulte
ArticleEduard Schulte was a prominent German industrialist and secret anti-Nazi who leaked the first report to the west that the Nazis intended to murder all Jews in Europe.
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Evidence from the Holocaust at the First Nuremberg Trial
ArticleProsecutors before the IMT based the case against 22 leading Nazi officials primarily on thousands of documents written by the Germans themselves. Learn more.
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Deportations to and from the Warsaw Ghetto
ArticleAt its height, the Warsaw ghetto held over 400,000 people living in horrendous and worsening conditions. Learn about deportations both to and from the ghetto.
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Tower of Sephardic faces: The Jewish community of Monastir, Macedonia
ArticleOn March 11, 1943, over 3,000 of Monastir’s Jews were deported to Treblinka. Learn more about the history of the community and postwar memorialization.
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What were some similarities between racism in Nazi Germany and in the United States, 1920s-1940s?
Discussion QuestionLearn about some aspects that are similar and some that are different in the history of racial antisemitism in Germany and racism in the United States.
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Trawniki
ArticleFrom July 1941-May 1944, the SS camp at Trawniki had several purposes. It is best known as the training site for auxiliary police guards used in Nazi killing centers. Learn more.
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Kristallnacht
ArticleOn November 9–10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence. This became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass." Learn more
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Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia
ArticleThe Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941. Learn about the Axis invasion and partition, collaboration, and the fate of Jewish people living in Yugoslavia.
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The Eastern Front: The German War against the Soviet Union
ArticleOften referred to as the “eastern front,” the German-Soviet theater of war was the largest and deadliest of World War II. Learn more about the background and key events.
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Axis Powers in World War II
ArticleThe three principal partners in the Axis alliance were Germany, Italy, and Japan. Learn more about the Axis powers in WW2.
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UNRRA conference convenes in the United States
FilmThe United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was established in November 1943 to aid refugees fleeing Axis aggression. After World War II, UNRRA sought to assist millions of refugees displaced by the war and its consequences. In the aftermath of the war, worldwide food shortages threatened millions with starvation and the world looked to the United States for assistance. In this footage, UNRRA's fourth council meeting convenes in Atlantic City. Director-General Herbert H. Lehman…
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A notice sent by the American Consulate General in Berlin regarding immigration visas
DocumentA notice sent by the American Consulate General in Berlin to Arthur Lewy and family, instructing them to report to the consulate on July 26, 1939, with all the required documents, in order to receive their American visas. German Jews attempting to immigrate to the United States in the late 1930s faced overwhelming bureaucratic hurdles. It was difficult to get the necessary papers to leave Germany, and US immigration visas were difficult to obtain. The process could take years.
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Resistance
Animated MapView an animated map describing acts of resistance to Nazi oppression, ranging from armed resistance to acts of spiritual preservation.
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Historian Peter Black describes need for improvement in world responses to atrocities
Oral HistoryIn the 1980s and 1990s, historian Peter Black worked for the US Department of Justice Office of Special Investigations, as part of a team tracking and prosecuting suspected war criminals. Black later served as the Senior Historian at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Sam Spiegel describes life in a displaced persons camp
Oral HistoryIn 1942, Sam was forced into a ghetto in his hometown and assigned to work in a munitions factory. In 1944 he was transported to Auschwitz and then forced to work in a train factory. He survived eight days on a death march after the evacuation of Auschwitz by the Nazis. He was liberated by Soviet units in January 1945. He lived in a displaced persons camp in Germany where worked for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. In 1947, he immigrated to the United States.
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"Final Solution": In Depth
ArticleThe "Final Solution," the Nazi plan to kill the Jews of Europe, was a core goal of Adolf Hitler and the culmination of German policy under Nazi rule.
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War Refugee Board: Background and Establishment
ArticleIn January 1944, FDR established the War Refugee Board which was charged with “immediate rescue and relief of the Jews of Europe and other victims of enemy persecution.”
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Glossary of Terms and Individuals in the Nazi Judicial System
ArticleLearn more about the Holocaust Encyclopedia’s key terms and individuals in the Nazi judicial system.
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War Refugee Board: Activities
ArticleThe War Refugee Board was a significant US attempt to rescue and relieve Jews and other endangered people under German occupation. Learn about its activities.
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Collaboration
ArticleTo perpetrate the Holocaust, Nazi Germany relied on the help of allies and collaborators from across Europe, including governments, institutions, and individuals.
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Glossary
ArticleAntisemitism: hostility toward or hatred of Jews as a religious or ethnic group, often accompanied by social, economic, or political discrimination. Appellplatz: German word for roll call square where prisoners were forced to assemble. Aryan: Term used in Nazi Germany to refer to non-Jewish and non-Roma (Gypsy) Caucasians. Northern Europeans with especially "Nordic" features such as blonde hair and blue eyes were considered by so-called race scientists to be the most superior of Aryans, members of a…
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The Harrison Report
ArticleThe Harrison Report criticized conditions in the DP camps, called for changes in the treatment of Jewish DPs, and recommended allowing them to emigrate to the US and Palestine.
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Erika Eckstut
ArticleExplore Erika Eckstut's biography and learn about the difficulties and dangers she faced in the Czernowitz ghetto.
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Charlene Schiff describes difficulties in gaining entry to the United States in the aftermath of the Holocaust
Oral HistoryBoth of Charlene's parents were local Jewish community leaders, and the family was active in community life. Charlene's father was a professor of philosophy at the State University of Lvov. World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. Charlene's town was in the part of eastern Poland occupied by the Soviet Union under the German-Soviet Pact of August 1939. Under the Soviet occupation, the family remained in its home and Charlene's father continued to teach. The Germans…
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The Riegner Telegram
ArticleThe Riegner telegram detailed the Nazi plan to systematically murder European Jews. It was sent to the British and American governments in August 1942.
