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Chaim Engel
ID CardChaim's family came from a small town where his father owned a textile store. When antisemitic pogroms broke out in Brudzew, the Engels moved to the industrial city of Lodz. Chaim was then 5 years old. In Lodz he attended a Jewish school that also provided a secular education. After finishing middle school, Chaim went to work at his uncle's textile factory. 1933-39: Chaim's neighborhood in Lodz was predominantly Jewish, so most of his friends were Jews. As a young adult he began his compulsory army…
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Naftali Saleschutz
ID CardNaftali was the youngest of nine children born to devout Hasidic Jewish parents living in Kolbuszowa. In the Hasidic tradition, he wore a long black coat and shoulder-length earlocks. He first faced antisemitism in the second grade when his teacher cut one earlock off each Jewish boy. Naftali escaped the teacher's shears, and his father, a respected merchant, had the teacher suspended. 1933-39: On September 9, 1939, the German army invaded Naftali's town and decisively defeated a small contingent of…
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Vladka (Fagele) Peltel Meed describes clandestine cultural activities in the Warsaw ghetto
Oral HistoryVladka belonged to the Zukunft youth movement of the Bund (the Jewish Socialist party). She was active in the Warsaw ghetto underground as a member of the Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB). In December 1942, she was smuggled out to the Aryan, Polish side of Warsaw to try to obtain arms and to find hiding places for children and adults. She became an active courier for the Jewish underground and for Jews in camps, forests, and other ghettos.
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Norbert J. Yasharoff describes the change in living conditions for Jews in Bulgaria
Oral HistoryAnti-Jewish measures took effect in Bulgaria after the beginning of World War II. In March 1941, Bulgaria joined the Axis alliance and German troops passed through Sofia. In May 1943, Norbert and his family were expelled to Plevin in northern Bulgaria, where they stayed with relatives. After the advance of the Soviet army in 1944, Norbert and his family returned to Sofia.
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Chart illustrating the Nuremberg Laws
PhotoChart illustrating the Nuremberg laws. The figures represent Germans, Jews, and Mischlinge. Germany, 1935.
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Shimshon and Tova Draenger
PhotoShimshon and Tova Draenger, members of the underground in the Kraków and Warsaw ghettos and partisans in the Wisnicz Forest. Krakow, Poland, date uncertain.
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Bernard Druskin
PhotoBernard Druskin in Israel, 1946. Bernard joined the partisans after escaping from the Vilna ghetto in 1940.
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Doing the laundry
PhotoFour of Norman's sisters, the maid, and Norman's mother, Esther, do laundry in the yard of their home. Kolbuszowa, Poland, 1934.
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Nazi Terror Begins
ArticleAfter rising to power in January 1933, the Nazis began the process of moving Germany from a democracy to a dictatorship. Learn more.
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Fritz Glueckstein's family on an outing
PhotoFritz Glueckstein (left) on a picnic with his family in Berlin, Germany, 1932. Fritz's father was Jewish—he attended services in a liberal synagogue—and his mother was Christian. Under the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, Fritz would be classified as mixed-raced (Mischling), but since his father was a member of the Jewish religious community, Fritz was classified as a Jew.
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Franco Cesana
ID CardFranco was born to a Jewish family living in the northern Italian city of Bologna. Even though a fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, came to power in Italy in 1922, Bologna's Jews continued to live in safety. Like many Italian Jews, Franco's family was well integrated in Italian society. Franco attended public elementary school. 1933-39: When Franco was 7, Mussolini enforced "racial" laws against the Jews: Franco was expelled from school, and went instead to a Jewish school hastily organized in makeshift…
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Rubin Segalowicz
ID CardRubin was the second of four children born to a Jewish family in the northeastern Polish town of Ivenets, approximately 60 miles west of Minsk. His father was a butcher. Rubin attended Ivenets' public elementary school until the age of 10, when he transferred to the Mirar Yeshiva to study Jewish law. 1933-39: In 1936, after completing yeshiva, Rubin made his living as a house painter. In Ivenets people would stand in front of Jewish stores and drive customers away, telling them not to buy from Jews. In…
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Leon Anderman
ID CardLeon was born to Jewish parents living near Tarnopol, then part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. During World War I, he was an officer in the Austrian army. Following his enlistment, Leon attended medical school in Vienna. After graduating in 1923, he opened a general medicine practice in Kolbuszowa, a town in south central Poland. He was one of the town's two physicians. 1933-39: Leon had never been active in Jewish affairs, but when the Germans deported Jews from their country in 1938, he felt compelled…
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Vladka (Fagele) Peltel Meed describes watching the burning of the Warsaw ghetto from a building outside the ghetto
Oral HistoryVladka belonged to the Zukunft youth movement of the Bund (the Jewish Socialist party). She was active in the Warsaw ghetto underground as a member of the Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB). In December 1942, she was smuggled out to the Aryan, Polish side of Warsaw to try to obtain arms and to find hiding places for children and adults. She became an active courier for the Jewish underground and for Jews in camps, forests, and other ghettos.
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Prewar portrait of Ala Gertner
PhotoPrewar photo of Ala Gertner. Bedzin, Poland, 1930s. After being deported to Auschwitz, Ala Gertner took fate into her own hands. Upon arrival, she was assigned to forced labor at a nearby armaments factory. After learning that they were going to be killed, Gertner, along with fellow female prisoners, began smuggling gunpowder and explosives from the factory with plans to destroy one of the crematoriums. During the uprising in October 1944, the prisoners killed three guards. They also set fire to…
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House used by members of the Vilna ghetto resistance
PhotoLocated on Ulica Stara (Old Street), outside the Vilna ghetto, this building was used as a safe house by the ghetto resistance. Vilna, after July 1944.
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Cover of an underground Yiddish newspaper
PhotoCover of an underground Yiddish newspaper, Jugend Shtimme (Voice of Youth). Writing on the bottom of the cover reads: "Fascism must be smashed." Warsaw ghetto, Poland, January–February 1941.
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Portrait of Walter Marx and his family
PhotoWalter Marx (standing at left) with father Ludwig, mother Johanna, and cousin Werner. In 1944, Walter joined partisans in Italy. He was the only one in the photograph to survive the Holocaust.
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Brenda Senders in Rovno
PhotoBrenda Senders in Rovno, 1944. Brenda joined a partisan unit that was constantly on the move. It occupied villages, conducted ambushes, shot passing German troops, blew up bases, and obliterated bridges and train tracks.
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Alexander White
PhotoAlexander White in Chicago, 1948, after he immigrated to the United States. Nearly 40 years later Alex would run into the only other survivor of the Bor labor camp that Alexander fled from to join the partisans.
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Norman Salsitz with his niece, Szandla Weinstein
PhotoThis 1929 portrait shows Norman Salsitz with his niece, Szandla Weinstein. Picture taken in front of a photographer's backdrop in the Kolbuszowa marketplace.
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Alisa (Lisa) Nussbaum Derman describes partisan activities
Oral HistoryLisa was one of three children born to a religious Jewish family. Following the German occupation of her hometown in 1939, Lisa and her family moved first to Augustow and then to Slonim (in Soviet-occupied eastern Poland). German troops captured Slonim in June 1941, during the invasion of the Soviet Union. In Slonim, the Germans established a ghetto which existed from 1941 to 1942. Lisa eventually escaped from Slonim, and went first to Grodno and then to Vilna, where she joined the resistance movement. She…
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Aron (Dereczynski) Derman describes partisan activities near Vilna
Oral HistoryAron was born to a middle-class Jewish family in Slonim, a part of Poland between the two world wars. His parents owned a clothing store. After studying in a technical school, Aron worked as a motion-picture projectionist in a small town near Slonim. The Soviet army took over Slonim in September 1939. War broke out between Germany and the Soviet Union in June 1941. Aron returned to Slonim. The Germans soon occupied Slonim, and later forced the Jews into a ghetto. Aron was forced to work in an armaments…
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Law, Justice, and the Holocaust
ArticleLearn about the role of the legal profession as the Nazi leadership gradually moved Germany from a democracy to a dictatorship.
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Supreme Court Decision on the Nuremberg Race Laws
ArticleLearn more about the 1936 German Supreme Court decision on the Nuremberg Race Laws.
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Sign excluding Jews from public places
ArtifactSigns excluding Jews, such as the sign shown here, were posted in public places (including parks, theaters, movie houses, and restaurants) throughout Nazi Germany. This sign states in German: "Jews are not wanted here."
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Mother and infant daughter in Germany
PhotoIda Baehr Lang holding her infant daughter, Freya Karoline, in Lambsheim. Ida died in the mid-1940s after deportation to Auschwitz. Freya survived in hiding in France and reunited with her father in 1946. Lambsheim, Germany, ca. 1934.
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A wounded partisan receives medical attention
PhotoA wounded partisan is treated in a field hospital belonging to the Shish detachment of the Molotov brigade. Among those pictured are Dr. Ivan Khudyakov, the brigade's physician (second from the right), and Fanya Lazebnik (Faye Schulman), a photographer and partisan nurse (left). The wounded partisan's name is Sergei. Pinsk, 1942–44.
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Portrait of Norman Salsitz's family
PhotoIn this 1934 portrait of Norman Salsitz's family, Norman is seated in the front row (at left). In the top row, center, an image of one of Norman's brothers has been pasted into the photograph. This is seen by comparing the size of the brother's face with the others pictured. Pasting in images of family members who could not be present during family portraits was common practice and in some cases the resulting composite images are the only remaining visual records of family groups.
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Laks family photo
PhotoLaks family photo, Poland, ca. 1925. Sitting, left to right: Pola Laks (Regina's mother) with baby Hania, grandmother Sara Tennenblum, Aunt Andzia Tennenblum. Standing, left to right: Aunt Lodzia Laks, Aunt Regina Tennenblum, Izak Laks (Regina's father), Aunt Rozia Tennenblum, and Aunt Dora Laks.
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Miles Lerman describes the value of weapons
Oral HistoryMiles Lerman was a Holocaust survivor, partisan fighter in the forests of Poland, international leader in the cause of Holocaust remembrance, and a "founding father" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Portrait of Aron's family on his mother's side
PhotoPortrait of Aron's family on his mother's side, taken when Aron's cousin moved to Israel in 1933-1934. Aron is seated second from left, bottom row. His mother, Miriam, is in the center row, second from right. Aron's father is behind her and to her right. Aron himself was 8 or 9 years old when this picture was taken in either May or June. At the time, Aron recalled, "I was thinking about going to summer camp." Slonim, Poland, 1933-1934.
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Frank Bleichman describes conditions in and dangers facing a partisan camp in the forests of Poland
Oral HistoryFrank was one of seven children born to a religious Jewish family in Kamionka, in the Lublin district of Poland. Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. When deportations of Jews from the Lublin area began in 1942, Frank joined a group of Jewish partisans who roamed the forests in search of weapons and food. After obtaining weapons by posing as Soviet paratroopers, they were able to defend themselves against German raids and take revenge against collaborators. They gradually made connections with Polish…
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Vladka (Fagele) Peltel Meed describes waiting at a train station with false documents to be smuggled into the Warsaw ghetto
Oral HistoryVladka belonged to the Zukunft youth movement of the Bund (the Jewish Socialist party). She was active in the Warsaw ghetto underground as a member of the Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB). In December 1942, she was smuggled out to the Aryan, Polish side of Warsaw to try to obtain arms and to find hiding places for children and adults. She became an active courier for the Jewish underground and for Jews in camps, forests, and other ghettos.
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Preben Munch-Nielsen
ID CardPreben was born to a Protestant family in the small Danish fishing village of Snekkersten. He was raised by his grandmother, who was also responsible for raising five other grandchildren. Every day Preben commuted to school in the Danish capital of Copenhagen, about 25 miles south of Snekkersten. 1933-39: There were very few Jews in Preben's elementary school, but he didn't think of them as Jews; they were just his classmates and pals. In Denmark they didn't distinguish between Jews and non-Jews, they…
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Norman Salsitz's sisters eat bagels at their mother's store
PhotoNorman's sisters Malcia, Matla, and Rachel eat bagels in the doorway of their mother's store. The red and white stripes on the door frames indicate that the store carried cigarettes, matches, and sugar, consumer goods regulated by a state monopoly. Kolbuszowa, Poland, 1934. With the end of World War II and collapse of the Nazi regime, survivors of the Holocaust faced the daunting task of rebuilding their lives. With little in the way of financial resources and few, if any, surviving family members, most…
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Kamchi family portrait
PhotoPortrait of the family of Mushon and Rebeka Kamchi in Bitola. Isak Kamchi is pictured in the front row at the right. Isak was born in Bitola. Several of his siblings and cousins left Macedonia for Palestine and North America before the war. During World War II, Isak served as the leader of a partisan unit operating in Croatia. He established a safehouse at his parent's home in Zagreb where partisans could rest and recuperate. His mother ran the safehouse, cooking for the men and nursing them back to…
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Dismissal letter
DocumentDuring the interwar period Dr. Susanne Engelmann served as the principal of a large public high school for girls in Berlin. This letter notified her of her dismissal, as a "non-Aryan," from her teaching position. The dismissal was in compliance with the Civil Service Law of April 7, 1933. On April 7, the German government issued the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums), which excluded Jews and political opponents from all civil…
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Miles Lerman describes some of the dangers of partisan life
Oral HistoryMiles Lerman was a Holocaust survivor, partisan fighter in the forests of Poland, international leader in the cause of Holocaust remembrance, and a "founding father" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Miles Lerman describes partisan activities
Oral HistoryMiles Lerman was a Holocaust survivor, partisan fighter in the forests of Poland, international leader in the cause of Holocaust remembrance, and a "founding father" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Miles Lerman describes observing Yom Kippur in his partisan group
Oral HistoryMiles Lerman was a Holocaust survivor, partisan fighter in the forests of German-occupied Poland, international leader in the cause of Holocaust remembrance, and a "founding father" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Miles Lerman describes returning to his hometown
Oral HistoryMiles Lerman was a Holocaust survivor, partisan fighter in the forests of Poland, international leader in the cause of Holocaust remembrance, and a "founding father" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Dismissal letter from the Berlin transit authority
DocumentA letter written by the Berlin transit authority (Berliner Verkehrs Aktiengesellschaft) to Viktor Stern, informing him of his dismissal from his post with their agency as of September 20, 1933. This action was taken to comply with provisions of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. On April 7, the German government issued the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums), which excluded Jews and political opponents…
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Leo Bretholz describes resistance training and activities in a French underground group he joined in 1943
Oral HistoryAfter the Germans annexed Austria in 1938, Leo attempted to flee. He eventually reached Belgium. In 1940 he was deported to the St.-Cyprien camp in France but escaped. In 1942 Leo was smuggled into Switzerland but was arrested and sent back to France, this time to the Rivesaltes and Drancy camps. He and a friend escaped from a train deporting them to Auschwitz in Poland. Leo joined the French underground in 1943. He arrived in the United States in 1947.
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German passport issued to Alice "Sara" Mayer (inside)
DocumentA German passport issued to Alice Mayer on February 24, 1939, in Bingen, Germany. Mayer's daughter, Ellen, is also listed on the passport. Both mother and daughter's names include the middle name "Sara." This middle name became a mandatory addition required by a law of August 17, 1938. Thereafter, all Jewish women in Germany with a first name of "non-Jewish" origin had to add "Sara" as a middle name on all official documents. Jewish men had to add the name "Israel". This enabled German officials to…
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Purim
Media EssayThe Jewish holiday of Purim marks the deliverance of the Jews from a royal death dec...
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Shmerke Kaczerginski
PhotoYiddish writer and cultural activist Shmerke Kaczerginski, who joined Jewish partisans in the Vilna area. 1944–1945.
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"Aryanization" in France
Photo"Aryanization" in France: this shop, belonging to Jews, has been given to a non-Jewish "temporary administrator." Paris, April 1942.
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Antisemitic regulations posted in Budapest
PhotoA Jewish man wearing a yellow star reads newly posted antisemitic regulations in Budapest. Hungary, 1944.
