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Lisa Nussbaum and her family. From left to right: Pola (sister), Herschel (father), Borushek (brother) Gittel (mother), and Lisa (about 13 years old in this photograph). Lisa's father exported geese to Germany for a living. Photograph taken in Raczki, Poland, ca. 1939. With the end of World War II and collapse of the Nazi regime, survivors of the Holocaust faced the daunting task of rebuilding their lives. With little in the way of financial resources and few, if any, surviving family members, most…
Samuel's parents immigrated to Palestine when he was very young. They lived in Rishon le Zion, the first settlement in Palestine founded by Jews from outside of Palestine. After graduating from high school, Samuel became active in a movement challenging the British mandate in Palestine. 1933-39: Samuel was expelled from Palestine in 1936 because of his outspoken criticism of the British mandate. He went to France and then to Spain just after the civil war began. Samuel fought for three years with the…
The Germans established a ghetto in Dokszyce in late 1941. Rachel hid during the liquidation of the ghetto in 1942, and she and her mother escaped to another ghetto. When the second ghetto was about to be liquidated, they escaped again. Rachel and her mother joined a band of partisans in the forest. She helped her mother to cook, and also cleaned weapons. Rachel and her mother tried to leave Europe when the war ended. They eventually arrived in the United States, in 1947.
Miles Lerman was a Holocaust survivor, partisan fighter in the forests of Poland, international leader in the cause of Holocaust remembrance, and a "founding father" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
Leo was seven years old when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. Before the war, Leo's father was a mathematics teacher and member of the Bialystok City Council. Fearing arrest, Leo's father fled Bialystok for Vilna just before the German occupation. Leo and his mother eventually joined his father in Vilna. After the Soviets occupied Vilna, Leo's father obtained transit visas to Japan. The family left Vilna in December 1940, traveled across the Soviet Union on the Trans-Siberian Express, and arrived…
Miles Lerman was a Holocaust survivor, partisan fighter in the forests of Poland, international leader in the cause of Holocaust remembrance, and a "founding father" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
The Germans established a ghetto in Dokszyce in late 1941. Rachel hid during the liquidation of the ghetto in 1942, and she and her mother escaped to another ghetto. When the second ghetto was about to be liquidated, they escaped again. Rachel and her mother joined a band of partisans in the forest. She helped her mother to cook, and also cleaned weapons. Rachel and her mother tried to leave Europe when the war ended. They eventually arrived in the United States, in 1947.
Dr. J. Rebhan, chair of the Jewish council in Przemysl, Poland, signed this document certifying that Max Diamant had stable employment in the Jewish clinic. The certificate identifies Diamant as a dentist and is dated June 4, 1942. During World War II, the Germans established Jewish councils to ensure that Nazi orders and regulations were implemented. Jewish council members also sought to provide basic community services for ghettoized Jewish populations.
On December 17, 1941, the Romanian government issued a decree requiring a census of all those with "Jewish blood.” All persons having one or two Jewish parents or two Jewish grandparents were ordered to register at the Central Jewish Office. This is a census certificate issued by that office in 1942.
On December 17, 1941, the Romanian government issued a decree requiring a census of all those with “Jewish blood.” All persons having one or two Jewish parents or two Jewish grandparents were ordered to register at the Central Jewish Office. This is a census certificate issued by that office in 1942.
Abraham Blum, leader of the Bund (Jewish Socialist party) and member of the Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB). Blum participated in the Warsaw ghetto uprising. Poland, between 1940 and 1943.
Scene photographed by George Kadish: Jewish prisoners behind a barred window in the Kovno ghetto jail. The Jewish council administered its own jail in the ghetto. Kovno, Lithuania, 1943.
The Reich Union of Jewish Frontline Soldiers organized summer camps and sports activities for Jewish children. Germany, between 1934 and 1936.
Mirjam grew up on her family's farm in Loosdrecht. Her parents, secular Jews, had moved from Amsterdam in 1914, two years before she was born. The Watermans were pacifists. Mirjam attended a progressive school in Hilversum. Her brother and youngest sister attended the Kees Boeke School, a progressive school located in Bilthoven that taught pacifist and humanistic ideals. 1933-39: In 1938 Mirjam began teaching at the Kees Boeke school. A group of German-Jewish refugees came to the school in 1939. Mirjam…
A Jewish family strolls along a street in prewar Kalisz. Poland, May 16, 1935.
Arie Wilner, a founder of the Warsaw ghetto's Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB). He was killed in the Warsaw ghetto uprising. Warsaw, Poland, before 1943.
Jacob Edelstein, chairman of the Jewish council in Theresienstadt. He was deported, and shot in Auschwitz in 1944. Theresienstadt, Czechoslovakia, 1942–1943.
August 17, 1938. On this date, the German government issued the Executive Order on the Law on the Alteration of Family and Personal Names.
Jews in the Lodz ghetto line up outside the labor office of the Jewish council in the hopes of finding employment outside the ghetto. Lodz, Poland, between 1941 and 1943.
Pre-emigration training: young Jews in a cooking class in the Theodor Herzl School sponsored by the Jewish community. Berlin, Germany, between 1930 and 1939.
Scene of prewar economic life: Jewish vendors sell their wares at an outdoor market in front of the Stara synagogue. Krakow, Poland, 1936.
The motto of Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski, chairman of the Lodz ghetto Jewish council: "Our only path [to survival] is [through] work." Lodz, Poland, wartime.
Exterior view of the Jewish orphanage run by Janusz Korczak. Established in 1912, the orphanage was located at 92 Krochmalna Street in Warsaw, Poland. Photo taken circa 1935.
View an animated map describing acts of resistance to Nazi oppression, ranging from armed resistance to acts of spiritual preservation.
April 25, 1933. On this date, the German government issued the Law against Overcrowding in Schools and Universities, limiting the amount of Jewish students.
Two Jewish girls (cousins Margot and Lotte Cassel) ready for their first day of school in Breslau, Germany, ca. 1937. As was traditional for all children in Germany, the cones were filled with treats to celebrate their first day of school. Margot's father, Saul, worked in the Tietz department store until he was dismissed following the enactment of the Nuremberg Laws.
Benjamin Miedzyrzecki (Benjamin Meed), a member of the Jewish underground living in hiding on false papers, poses in Ogrod Saski (Saski Gardens) on the Aryan side of Warsaw. Poland, 1943.
False identification card which Vladka Meed had used from 1940–42 on the Aryan side of Warsaw, smuggling arms to Jewish fighters and helping Jews escape from the ghetto.
Vladka belonged to the Zukunft youth movement of the Bund (the Jewish Socialist party). She was active in the Warsaw ghetto underground as a member of the Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB). In December 1942, she was smuggled out to the Aryan, Polish side of Warsaw to try to obtain arms and to find hiding places for children and adults. She became an active courier for the Jewish underground and for Jews in camps, forests, and other ghettos.
Group portrait of children holding their diplomas at a school in Bitola. Between 1925 and 1938.
Prewar family photograph of Berta and Inge Engelhard holding pigeons in a public square in Munich. Photograph taken in Munich, Germany, 1937. Following increased anti-Jewish measures, Berta and brother Theo (not pictured here) left Germany on a Kindertransport in January 1939. Inge followed on a different transport a few months later. While the siblings were eventually housed together in England, they faced many challenges during the war including the pain of separation from their parents. Parents Moshe…
Terese Cohen, a Tunisian Jewish women, poses with her two children, Nadia and Marcel. Immediately after the Allied landings in Algeria and Morocco, the Germans occupied Tunisia. After the occupation, an SS officer came to the Cohen's house and confiscated everything leaving only the table and chairs for the Germans to use. They gave the family 24 hours to pack and leave and then expropriated the home to use as a barracks for soldiers.
Mordecai Gebirtig, born in 1877 in Krakow, Poland, was a Yiddish folk poet and songwriter. Gebirtig had three daughters, for whom he wrote and performed his poems. The words were set to improvised melodies, and most of his songs resemble entries in a diary. Many of Gebirtig's poems contain themes of eastern European Jewish life in the 1920s and 1930s. The lullaby "Your Kitten is Hungry" dates from the early 1920s. The lyrics, addressed to a hungry child, evoke the themes of hunger and deprivation.
Mordecai Gebirtig, born in 1877 in Krakow, Poland, was a Yiddish folk poet and songwriter. Gebirtig had three daughters, for whom he wrote and performed his poems. The words were set to improvised melodies, and most of his songs resemble entries in a diary. Many of Gebirtig's poems contain themes of eastern European Jewish life in the 1920s and 1930s. The lyrics to "Avreml the Pickpocket" address two social issues, crime and the collapse of family life, arguing that both find their roots in poverty and…
Exterior of house of study. Book peddler negotiates a sale with a young customer.
Selma Schwarzwald with her mother, Laura, in Lvov, Poland, September 1938.
Training for emigration to Palestine: a math class at the Caputh Agricultural School. Berlin, Germany, 1930–39.
Ruth Kohn (top row, second from left) and her classmates at a school in Prague. Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1928.
Members of the Bielski partisan group at the site of a mass grave shortly after liberation. Poland, 1945.
Prewar group portrait in front of a synagogue in the Transylvanian town of Sighet.
April 7, 1933. On this date, the German government issued the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service excluding Jews from civil service.
Laurette Cohen (front row, far right) poses with her students at an Alliance Israelite School in Morocco. 1935. Laurette was born in Oran, Algeria, 1911. In 1932, she married Prosper Cohen (born in Meknes in 1909). They were both teachers for the Alliance Israelite Universelle Schools in Morocco. Their daughter, Mathilde, was born in Tangiers on August 31, 1933. Before 1939, the family lived in Meknes and Fez. Later, Laurette and Prosper were sent to teach in other different locations where they were…
Mordecai Gebirtig, born in 1877 in Krakow, Poland, was a Yiddish folk poet and songwriter. Gebirtig had three daughters, for whom he wrote and performed his poems. The words were set to improvised melodies, and most of his songs resemble entries in a diary. Many of Gebirtig's poems contain themes of eastern European Jewish life in the 1920s and 1930s. The lyrics to "Rejoice, Make Merry, Children" contain a springtime motif that recurred in other Gebirtig works. In the lyrics, an elderly narrator urges…
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