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Why did the United States go to war? What did Americans know about the “Final Solution”? How did Americans respond to news about the Holocaust? Learn more.
Nazi Germany’s territorial expansion and the radicalization of Nazi anti-Jewish policies triggered a mass exodus. Learn about the US and the refugee crisis of 1938–41.
Inge was the only child of Berthold and Regina Auerbacher, religious Jews living in Kippenheim, a village in southwestern Germany near the Black Forest. Her father was a textile merchant. The family lived in a large house with 17 rooms and had servants to help with the housework. 1933-39: On November 10, 1938, hoodlums threw rocks and broke all the windows of Inge's home. That same day police arrested her father and grandfather. Inge, her mother and grandmother managed to hide in a shed until it was…
The oldest of five children, Johanna was born to Jewish parents living in a small town near Cologne. Her father owned a cigar factory. After Johanna graduated from high school, she worked in a bank in Cologne. At 22 she married Carl Heumann and the couple settled in the village of Hellenthal near the Belgian border. There they owned a general store. The couple had two daughters, Margot and Lore. 1933-39: A year ago Johanna's family moved to nearby Bielefeld, and she enrolled Margot and Lore in the city's…
The younger of two children, Moses was born to Jewish parents living in the southwestern Polish town of Bedzin. When he was 7, his family moved to the nearby city of Katowice where his father had a wholesale leather business. The Rechnitzes lived in a three-bedroom, upper-floor apartment on Jordana Street. Moses attended a Polish elementary school and also received religious instruction. 1933-39: In secondary school, Moses was one of the only Jewish pupils. He first encountered antisemitism when a teacher…
Under Adolf Hitler's leadership, the Nazi regime was responsible for the mass murder of 6 million Jews and millions of other victims. Learn about Hitler in the years 1930-1933.
Nazi anti-Jewish laws began stripping Jews of rights and property from the start of Hitler’s dictatorship. Learn about antisemitic laws in prewar Germany.
Nazi student groups played a key role in aligning German universities with Nazi ideology and in solidifying Nazi power.
The Nazi Party Platform was a 25-point program for the creation of a Nazi state and society. Hitler presented it at the Hofbräuhaus Beerhall in Munich in February 1920.
Learn about the establishment of and conditions in Melk, a subcamp of the Mauthausen camp system in Austria.
Nazi officials implemented the Jewish badge as a key element in their plan to persecute and eventually destroy the Jewish population of Europe. Learn more
Learn about the provisions and impact of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, including the "War Guilt Clause" which held Germany responsible for starting World War I.
On November 9–10, 1938, Nazi Party officials set off a series of violent pogroms against Jews in Germany and Austria. This event came to be known as the "Night of Broken Glass."
The last group of European Jewish refugees leaves a British detention camp for Israel. Cyprus, February 10, 1949.
Books and writings deemed "un-German" are burned at the Opernplatz (Opera Square). Berlin, Germany, May 10, 1933.
A private Jewish home vandalized during Kristallnacht (the "Night of Broken Glass" pogrom). Vienna, Austria, November 10, 1938.
Public burning of "un-German" books in the Opernplatz (Opera Square). Berlin, Germany, May 10, 1933.
The synagogue in Oberramstadt (a town in southwestern Germany) burns during Kristallnacht. Oberramstadt, Germany, November 9-10, 1938.
A mass grave at the Mauthausen concentration camp. Photograph taken after the liberation of the camp. Mauthausen, Austria, May 10–15, 1945.
The shattered stained glass windows of the Zerrennerstrasse synagogue after its destruction on Kristallnacht. Pforzheim, Germany, ca. November 10, 1938.
The ruins of Oradour-sur-Glane, destroyed by the SS on June 10, 1944. Oradour-sur-Glane, France, photograph taken in September 1944.
Ruins in Oradour-sur-Glane, France. The town was destroyed by the SS on June 10, 1944. Photograph taken in September 1944.
Crowds gather at Berlin's Opernplatz (opera square) for the burning of books deemed "un-German." Berlin, Germany, May 10, 1933.
Regina at the Dueppel displaced persons camp in Berlin-Schlachtensee. Germany, September 10, 1946.
During the interwar period Dr. Susanne Engelmann served as the principal of a large public high school for girls in Berlin. This letter notified her of her dismissal, as a "non-Aryan," from her teaching position. The dismissal was in compliance with the Civil Service Law of April 7, 1933. On April 7, the German government issued the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums), which excluded Jews and political opponents from all civil…
The "Nacht und Nebel" decree allowed German authorities to capture without trace ("by night and fog") and try individuals alleged to be "endangering German security."
Explore a timeline of the history of the Bergen-Belsen camp in the Nazi camp system. Initially a POW camp, it became a concentration camp in 1943.
January 27, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz, is designated by the United Nations General Assembly as International Holocaust Remembrance Day (IHRD).
June 18-22, 1944. On this date, Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler's firsthand account of Auschwitz went public worldwide.
On December 7, 1941, Japan launched an attack on the American navel base at Pearl Harbor. The following day, the United States declared war on Japan, entering into World War II.
On December 7, 1941, Japan launched an attack on the American navel base at Pearl Harbor. The following day, the United States declared war on Japan, entering into World War II.World War II in the Pacific ended when Japan surrendered on Sep...
This cartoon, “The Modern Mercury” by Jerry Doyle, appeared in The Philadelphia Record, December 7, 1935. The faded large figure in the background bears the label “Olympics ideals of sportsmanship and international good will.” The image of Hitler in the foreground bears the words “1936 Olympics,” “Intolerance and discrimination,” and “Nazism.”
On December 7, 1941, Japan launched an attack on the American navel base at Pearl Harbor. The following day, the United States declared war on Japan, entering into World War II. World War II in the Pacific ended when Japan surrendered on Sep...
Pants worn by Marjan Glass as he dug anti-tank ditches for the defense of Warsaw, Poland, and then as he hastily fled the city ahead of the German advance on September 7, 1939. Glass, a lawyer, escaped with his wife and three-year-old son, and his wife's mother and brother. He left without taking the time to change from his soiled work clothing. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
Germany's formal surrender on May 7 and VE-Day (Victory in Europe Day) on May 8, 1945, were marked by joyous celebrations all over Europe. This footage shows streets in Paris and London filled with people celebrating the unconditional Allied victory over Nazi Germany and the winning of the war in Europe.
Portrait of Irmgard Huber, chief nurse at the Hadamar euthanasia killing center, in her office. The photograph was taken by an American military photographer on April 7, 1945.
US soldiers of the 8th Infantry Regiment seek cover behind hedges and signs to return fire to German forces holding the town of Libin. Belgium, September 7, 1944.
After the liberation of the Wöbbelin camp, US troops forced the townspeople of Ludwigslust to bury the bodies of prisoners killed in the camp. This photograph shows German civilians who were ordered to bury the dead; US troops stand in the background. Germany, May 7, 1945
Medical corpsmen of the US 71st Infantry Division, 3rd US Army look on as captured German soldiers remove bodies from inside a barracks in Gunskirchen. In the foreground, a Jewish girl lies huddled in the straw on the floor of the barracks. Gunskirchen, Austria, May 7, 1945.
Hannah Szenes on her first day in Palestine. Haifa, Palestine, September 19, 1939. Between 1943 and 1945, a group of Jewish men and women from Palestine who had volunteered to join the British army parachuted into German-occupied Europe. Their mission was to organize resistance to the Germans and aid in the rescue of Allied personnel. Hannah Szenes was among these volunteers. Szenes was captured in German-occupied Hungary and executed in Budapest on November 7, 1944, at the age of 23.
Elisabeth, Hans Werner, and Paul Gerhard Kusserow. Because they were the children of Jehovah's Witnesses, all three were forcibly removed from school on March 7, 1939, and kept separated from their family, which was accused of spiritual and moral neglect, until their liberation in April 1945. This photograph was taken at the Kusserow home in Bad Lippspringe, 1936-1939.
Soviet and Polish prisoners with disabilities stand in front of a tank of the 11th Armored Division, US Third Army. This photograph was taken at the Mauthausen concentration camp immediately after liberation. Austria, May 5–7, 1945.
Learn more about the 1943 Tunisia campaign, a four-month long struggle between Allied and Axis powers in North Africa during World War II.
Before 1942, Nazi Germany had expanded across much of Europe. Learn more about major Allied victories in eastern Europe that led to the German surrender.
Crossing the Rhine River allowed US and British troops to advance into the interior of Germany, helping to bring about the defeat of the Third Reich in WWII
Learn more about Jewish prisoners and the various uprisings and armed resistance movements in killing centers and other Nazi camps.
After WWII, many Holocaust survivors, unable to return to their homes, lived in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Read about Deggendorf DP camp.
Browse a series of articles describing how some Jews survived the Holocaust; rescue efforts; anti-Nazi resistance groups; and revolts against Nazi oppression in the Warsaw ghetto and in killing centers.
In 1944, Waffen-SS troops massacred residents of Oradour-sur-Glane, a small village in France. Learn about the German occupation and destruction of the village.
The Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls were developed as Nazi Party youth groups to indoctrinate children and youth in Nazi ideology and policy.
We would like to thank Crown Family Philanthropies and the Abe and Ida Cooper Foundation for supporting the ongoing work to create content and resources for the Holocaust Encyclopedia. View the list of all donors.