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  • Communism

    Article

    Communist ideas spread rapidly in Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries, offering an alternative to both capitalism and far-right fascism and setting the stage for a political conflict with global repercussions.

    Communism
  • War Refugee Board: Activities

    Article

    The War Refugee Board was a significant US attempt to rescue and relieve Jews and other endangered people under German occupation. Learn about its activities.

    War Refugee Board: Activities
  • Esterwegen Concentration Camp

    Article

    Esterwegen was part of the Nazi regime’s early system of concentration camps, created to hold people arrested as opponents of the new regime.

    Esterwegen Concentration Camp
  • Jacob Wiener

    Article

    Explore Jacob Wiener’s biography and learn about his experiences during Kristallnacht in Würzburg, Germany.

    Jacob Wiener
  • Lilly Appelbaum Malnik

    ID Card

    Lilly Appelbaum was born in Antwerp, Belgium to Jewish parents, Israel and Justine. Lilly's parents separated before she was born. Her father immigrated to the United States. Lilly had two older siblings, Leon (born 1927) and Maria (born 1925). She lived with her maternal grandparents in Antwerp. During the week, her mother lived in Brussels, where she operated a small workshop that made raincoats.  1933-39: Lilly and her grandparents lived in a predominantly Jewish neighborhood in Antwerp. She went to a…

    Lilly Appelbaum Malnik
  • Herzogenbusch Main Camp (Vught)

    Article

    The Herzogenbusch concentration camp in the Netherlands began functioning in January 1943. Learn about its establishment, administration, prisoners, and conditions there.

    Herzogenbusch Main Camp (Vught)
  • Mauthausen

    Article

    The Mauthausen concentration camp was established following the Nazi incorporation of Austria in 1938. Learn about the harsh conditions in the camp.

    Mauthausen
  • Manya Moszkowicz

    ID Card

    Manya was born in Chmielnik, a small Polish town that had a Jewish community dating back to the 16th century. Her father owned a furniture shop and her mother took care of the home. Manya had two younger brothers, David and Mordechai, and was surrounded by many close relatives. She attended both public and Hebrew schools and had many friends. 1933–39: In 1938 Manya's family moved to Sosnowiec, a larger city located near the German border. There she had her first experience with antisemitism. Signs…

    Manya Moszkowicz
  • Gerd Jacob Zwienicki

    ID Card

    Gerd was the eldest of four children. His father, Josef, had left Ukraine in 1913 and opened a bicycle sales and repair shop in Bremen. His mother, Selma, was descended from a distinguished Jewish family and had been a kindergarten teacher and a bookkeeper for a large firm. As a child, Gerd experienced the hardships of the Depression and witnessed the violent street fights between the Nazis and their political opponents, the Communists and Socialists. 1933–39: When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Gerd…

    Gerd Jacob Zwienicki
  • Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945

    Article

    Learn about the history of discrimination against Roma in Europe and how the Nazi regime committed genocide against European Roma during WWII.

    Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945
  • Leon Rupnik

    Article

    During World War II, Slovene general Leon Rupnik collaborated with the forces of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Rupnik was appointed president of the Provincial Government of the German-occupied Province of Ljubljana in 1943. He was convicted of treason and executed in 1946. In 2020, his sentence was annulled on a technicality.

  • Freiberg

    Article

    Learn about the Freiburg subcamp of Flossenbürg, including its establishment, prisoner population, and conditions there.

  • Bremen-Farge

    Article

    Learn more about Bremen-Farge, a subcamp of Neuengamme where the majority of prisoners were used to construct an underground U-boat shipyard for the German navy.

    Bremen-Farge
  • Chelmno

    Article

    The Chelmno killing center was the first stationary facility where poison gas was used for mass murder of Jews. Killing operations began there in December 1941.

    Chelmno
  • Incitement to Genocide in International Law

    Article

    After the Holocaust, the IMT charged the first case of “incitement to genocide.” Learn more about the crime and its application in modern genocide law.

    Incitement to Genocide in International Law
  • Italy

    Article

    Italy was home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in Europe. It was also a member of the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany. Learn about Italy during WWII and the Holocaust.

    Tags: deportations
    Italy
  • 1941: Key Dates

    Article

    Explore a timeline of key events during 1941 in the history of Nazi Germany, World War II, and the Holocaust.

    Tags: key dates
    1941: Key Dates
  • Sighet

    Article

    Learn about the history of Sighet, birthplace of Elie Wiesel. The Jewish population of Sighet was deported to Auschwitz in May 1944. Most of the deportees were gassed on arrival.

    Sighet
  • Vidkun Quisling

    Article

    Vidkun Quisling, Minister President of Norway from 1942 to 1945, was a Norwegian fascist and Nazi collaborator. His last name has come to mean “traitor” or “collaborator.” 

    Vidkun Quisling
  • The Rescue Mission of Gilbert and Eleanor Kraus

    Article

    In the spring of 1939, Gilbert and Eleanor Kraus rescued 50 Jewish children from Vienna, Austria, by bringing them to the United States. Learn about their mission.

    The Rescue Mission of Gilbert and Eleanor Kraus
  • Darfur

    Article

    From 2003 to 2005, an estimated 200,000 civilians died as a result of a campaign of violence in Darfur by the Sudanese government. In 2004, the US Secretary of State called this violence a genocide.

    Tags: Darfur
    Darfur
  • Gerhard (Gad) Beck

    ID Card

    Gad Beck was born in 1923 in Berlin, Germany.

    Gerhard (Gad) Beck
  • William (Bill) Lowenberg describes forced labor in the Kaufering subcamp of the Dachau concentration camp

    Oral History

    As a boy, Bill attended school in Burgsteinfurt, a German town near the Dutch border. After the Nazis came to power in Germany in January 1933, Bill experienced increasing antisemitism and was once attacked on his way to Hebrew school by a boy who threw a knife at him. In 1936, he and his family left Germany for the Netherlands, where they had relatives and thought they would be safe. However, after Germany invaded the Netherlands in May 1940, antisemitic legislation--including the order to wear the Jewish…

    William (Bill) Lowenberg describes forced labor in the Kaufering subcamp of the Dachau concentration camp
  • Transnistria Governorate

    Article

    The Transnistria Governorate was established in occupied Soviet Ukraine during WWII. Learn more about the Holocaust in Transnistria between 1941-1944.

    Transnistria Governorate
  • Isadore Helfing describes labor in the Treblinka camp

    Oral History

    Isadore was born to a Jewish family in Kielce, Poland. Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. Isadore and his family were forced into the Kielce ghetto, which was established in April 1941. When his parents were deported to the Treblinka killing center in 1942, Isadore went with them rather than remaining behind for forced labor. After arrival at the camp, Isadore hid in a pile of bodies. His parents were killed. Isadore survived by working in the camp. On August 2, 1943, prisoners at Treblinka revolted…

    Tags: Treblinka
    Isadore Helfing describes labor in the Treblinka camp

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