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Two ovens inside the crematorium at the Dachau concentration camp. Dachau, Germany, July 1, 1945. This image is among the commonly reproduced and distributed images of liberation. These photographs provided powerful documentation of the crimes of the Nazi era.
Group portrait of the members of the Zionist pioneer youth group, Ha-Shomer ha-Tsa'ir Hachshara. Kalisz, Poland, May 1, 1935.
Photographs, artifacts, and a map presented as evidence at the International Military Tribunal. Nuremberg, Germany, between November 20, 1945, and October 1, 1946.
Birds-eye view of the fenced-in cell block where defendants in the International Military Tribunal war crimes trial were imprisoned. Nuremberg, Germany, between November 20, 1945, and October 1, 1946.
An armored car parked outside the gate of the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg on the day the judgment of the International Military Tribunal was handed down. Nuremberg, Germany, October 1, 1946.
Caricature of Nuremberg International Military Tribunal defendant Alfred Rosenberg, by the German newspaper caricaturist Peis. Nuremberg, Germany, October 1, 1946.
Defendant Albert Speer during the International Military Tribunal trial of war criminals at Nuremberg. Germany, between November 20, 1945, and October 1, 1946.
Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi minister of propaganda, speaks at a rally in favor of the boycott of Jewish-owned shops. Berlin, Germany, April 1, 1933.
SA men in front of Jewish-owned store urge a boycott with the signs reading "Germans! Defend Yourselves! Don't buy from Jews!" Berlin, Germany, April 1, 1933.
During the anti-Jewish boycott, an SA man stands outside a Jewish-owned store with a sign demanding that Germans not buy from Jews. Berlin, Germany, April 1, 1933.
A survivor stokes smoldering human remains in a crematorium oven that was still lit in the Dachau camp. Photograph taken upon the liberation of the camp. Dachau, Germany, April 29-May 1, 1945.
A boycott sign posted on the display window of a Jewish-owned business reads: "Germans defend yourselves against Jewish atrocity propaganda. Buy only at German shops!" Berlin, Germany, April 1, 1933.
SS Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Roedl, commandant of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp. Gross-Rosen, Germany, between May 1, 1941, and September 15, 1942.
Members of a US congressional committee investigating German atrocities view the emaciated body of a dead prisoner at the Dora-Mittelbau concentration camp, near Nordhausen. Germany, May 1, 1945.
Jewish youth attend a class on transplanting seedlings, part of a general course in farming sponsored by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee at the Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp. Germany, August 1, 1946.
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (left), US president Franklin D. Roosevelt (center), and British prime minister Winston S. Churchill (right) at the Tehran Conference. Tehran, Iran, between November 28 and December 1, 1943.
Scene during the boycott of Jewish businesses. A sign on truck carrying Storm Troopers (SA) urges "Germans! Defend yourselves. Don't buy from Jews." Berlin, Germany, April 1, 1933.
A mother checks on her sick daughter inside the container where they live in an internally displaced persons (IDP) camp near Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan. September 1, 2015.
At left, a column of Soviet prisoners of war, under German guard, marches away from the front. Place uncertain, July 1, 1941.
People gather in the street to read a special edition of the Nurnberger newspaper reporting the sentences handed down by the International Military Tribunal. Nuremberg, Germany, October 1, 1946.
Soldiers from unidentified units of Einsatzgruppe C look through the possessions of Jews massacred at Babi Yar, a ravine near Kiev. Soviet Union, September 29–October 1, 1941.
SS officers and German nurses gather during the dedication ceremony of the new SS hospital in Auschwitz, September 1, 1944. Among those pictured are Karl Höcker, Josef Kramer, and SS-Hauptsturmführer Heinrich Schwarz.
Germans in front of a Jewish-owned department store in Berlin during the anti-Jewish boycott. Berlin, Germany, April 1, 1933.
In 1940, the Nazis established Gusen concentration camp. Learn more about camp conditions, forced labor, and liberation.
The Security Police (Sicherheitspolizei, SiPo) was a German police organization created by Heinrich Himmler. Learn about its origin and role in the Holocaust.
Explore a timeline of key events during 1943 in the history of Nazi Germany, World War II, and the Holocaust.
The Uckermark camp was one of the so-called youth protection camps that the Nazi regime established for young people who were alleged to have strayed from Nazi norms and ideals.
The Röhm Purge (the “Night of the Long Knives") was the murder of the leadership of the SA (Storm Troopers), the Nazi paramilitary formation led by Ernst Röhm. Learn more.
A notice sent by the American Consulate General in Berlin to Arthur Lewy and family, instructing them to report to the consulate on July 26, 1939, with all the required documents, in order to receive their American visas. German Jews attempting to immigrate to the United States in the late 1930s faced overwhelming bureaucratic hurdles. It was difficult to get the necessary papers to leave Germany, and US immigration visas were difficult to obtain. The process could take years.
Adolf Hitler established himself as absolute Führer, or leader, of the Nazi Party by 1921. Learn more about Hitler in the years 1919-1924.
Hitler rose to power during a time of economic and political instability in Germany. Learn more about how and when Hitler came to power.
Diaries reveal some of the most intimate, heart-wrenching accounts of the Holocaust. They record in real time the feelings of loss, fear, and, sometimes, hope of those facing extraordinary peril. Selma Wijnberg and Chaim Engel met and fell in love in the Sobibor killing center. After the young couple made a daring escape during the camp uprising and fled into hiding, Selma began a diary to record their experiences. The diary was written in 1943-1944 while Selma was in hiding in German-occupied Poland.…
Portrait of Herschel Grynszpan taken after his arrest by French authorities for the assassination of German diplomat Ernst vom Rath. Grynszpan (1921-1943?). Born in Hannover, Germany, was the son of Polish Jews who had immigrated to Germany. In 1936 Grynszpan fled to Paris. On November 7, 1938, after having learned of the expulsion of his parents from Germany to Zbaszyn the Polish frontier, Grynszpan assassinated Ernst vom Rath, the third secretary of the German embassy in Paris. The diplomat's…
Kristallnacht—literally, "Crystal Night"—is usually translated from German as the "Night of Broken Glass." It refers to the violent anti-Jewish pogrom of November 9 and 10, 1938. The pogrom occurred throughout Germany, which by then included both Austria and the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. Hundreds of synagogues and Jewish institutions all over the German Reich were attacked, vandalized, looted, and destroyed. Many were set ablaze. Firemen were instructed to let the synagogues burn but to…
Learn more about the Western Desert campaign during World War II in Egypt and Libya between 1940-1943.
Learn more about how and why Nazi German SS and police units, including the Einsatzgruppen, perpetrated mass killings of Jews in the occupied-Soviet Union.
Jews have lived across Europe for centuries. Learn more about European Jewish life and culture before the Holocaust.
The term genocide refers to violent crimes committed against groups with the intent to destroy the existence of the group. Learn about the origin of the term.
To implement their policies, the Nazis had help from individuals across Europe, including professionals in many fields. Learn about the role of German clergy and church leaders.
By the process of "Aryanization" in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, Jewish-owned businesses and property were transferred to non-Jews. Learn more.
May 7, 1945. On this date, German armed forces surrendered unconditionally to Allied forces in the west.
January 12, 1951. On this date, the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide entered into force.
August 28, 1959. On this date, Raphael Lemkin died. He coined the term "genocide" and worked tirelessly for the term to become international law.
November 9, 1923. On this date, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic.
The Holocaust (1933–1945) was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million European Jews by the Nazi German regime and its allies and collaborators. The Holocaust era began in January 1933 when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. It ended in May 1945, when the Allied Powers defeated Nazi Germany in World War II. The Holocaust was a German initiative that took place throughout German- and Axis-controlled Europe. It affected nearly all of Europe’s Jewish…
Explore the story of over 2,000 Polish Jewish refugees who fled east to escape war-torn Europe. They sought safety in such distant places as China and Japan.
Shortly after taking power in January 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis took control of German newspapers, detailing how the news was to be reported.
After the Holocaust, the IMT charged the first case of “incitement to genocide.” Learn more about the crime and its application in modern genocide law.
Learn about the history of Sighet, birthplace of Elie Wiesel. The Jewish population of Sighet was deported to Auschwitz in May 1944. Most of the deportees were gassed on arrival.
We would like to thank Crown Family Philanthropies and the Abe and Ida Cooper Foundation for supporting the ongoing work to create content and resources for the Holocaust Encyclopedia. View the list of all donors.