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Jewish Life in Europe Before the Holocaust
ArticleJews have lived across Europe for centuries. Learn more about European Jewish life and culture before the Holocaust.
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Bayer
ArticleAs part of the IG Farben conglomerate, which strongly supported the Third Reich, the Bayer company was complicit in the crimes of Nazi Germany. Learn more.
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Wannsee Protocol
ArticleThe Wannsee Protocol documents the 1942 Wannsee Conference participants and indicates their agreement to collaborate on a continental scale in the Final Solution.
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Otto Wels
ArticleSocial Democratic politician Otto Wels was the only German parliamentary leader to openly oppose passage of the Enabling Act, the cornerstone of Adolf Hitler's dictatorship.
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Hans Vogel's Diary
Media EssayDiaries reveal some of the most intimate, heart-wrenching accounts of the Holocaust. They record in real time the feelings of loss, fear, and, sometimes, hope of those facing extraordinary peril. Hans Vogel kept a diary journaling his family's fli...
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Arriving at the Fort Ontario refugee shelter
PhotoJewish refugees from Europe arrive at the emergency refugee shelter at Fort Ontario, in the United States. A father, holding his daughter, checks his tags. Oswego, New York, United States, August 4, 1944.
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Defendant Julius Streicher
PhotoDefendant Julius Streicher in his prison cell at Nuremberg. For his influential role in inciting hatred and violence, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg indicated Streicher on count four, crimes against humanity. Streicher was found guilty and sentenced to death. He was hanged on October 16, 1946.
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Plaszow
ArticleThe Płaszów camp was established in Krakow, Poland, in 1942. Learn more about the camp during the war, including Oskar Schindler’s involvement.
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Ona Simaite, Joop Westerweel, Irena Sendler
ArticleLearn about the rescue activities and the fates of Ona Simaite in Lithuania, Joop Westerweel in the Netherlands, and Irena Sendler in Poland.
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Artist on the Blacklist: Ludwig Meidner
ArticleLudwig Meidner was an Expressionist artist and poet. He was on the list of banned writers and artists in Nazi Germany. Monographs about him were burned in 1933.
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Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings, Case #2: The Milch Case
ArticleThe Milch Case was Case #2 of 12 Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings against leading German industrialists, military figures, SS perpetrators, and others.
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Yitzhak Gitterman
ArticleYitzhak Gitterman was a director of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee in Poland and a member of the underground Jewish Fighting Organization.
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Evading Justice
ArticleIn the decades following the Holocaust, the search for perpetrators continued. As they reach the end of their lives, the vast majority of Nazi offenders have escaped punishment.
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Mira Shelub
ArticleRead the Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation's short biography of Mira Shelub.
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Cookbooks and Recipes
ArticleEach cookbook or recipe in the Museum’s collection tells a story. Learn more about the significance of these documents during the Holocaust.
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Werner Hegemann
ArticleWerner Hegemann was a city planner and author. The Nazis opposed his views of American architecture and German historical figures. His book was burned in 1933.
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Theodor Wolff
ArticleTheodor Wolff was an influential German journalist and vocal opponent of the Nazis. His work was burned during the Nazi book burnings of 1933. Learn more.
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Carl von Ossietzky
ArticleCarl von Ossietzky was a German journalist, pacifist, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate whose articles were burned under the Nazi regime in 1933. Learn more.
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Klaus Mann
ArticleKlaus Mann was a German author whose novel “Mephisto” exposed the evil of the Nazi dictatorship. His works were burned in Nazi Germany in May 1933. Learn more.
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München Neu Freimann Displaced Persons Camp
ArticleAfter WWII, many Holocaust survivors, unable to return to their homes, lived in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Read about München Neu Freimann DP camp.
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H.G. Wells
ArticleH.G. Wells was an author best known for science fiction titles. The Nazis objected to "The Outline of History," a non-fiction work, which was burned in 1933.
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Max Brod
ArticleMax Brod was a Jewish author most widely known as the biographer and editor of Franz Kafka. His works were burned in the Nazi book burnings of 1933. Learn more.
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Sigmund Freud
ArticleSigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis. The Nazis abhorred his new science and Jewish heritage. His works were burned in Germany in 1933. Learn more.
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1915 portrait of Willem Arondeus
PhotoA 1915 portrait of Willem Arondeus. During World War II, Arondeus, a gay member of the Dutch resistance, participated in an attack on the Amsterdam Population Registry offices. His group set fire to several thousand files in an attempt to destroy government records of Jews and others sought by the Nazis. Soon after the attack, his unit was betrayed. The Nazis arrested and executed Arondeus in 1943. Blaricum, the Netherlands, 1915.
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Forced labor at a Siemens factory
PhotoPrisoners at forced labor building airplane parts at the Siemens factory in the Bobrek labor camp, a subcamp of Auschwitz. February-June 1944. David Stein is pictured in the row to the right, with his back to the camera; his brother Charles is in the same row, fourth from the left, facing the camera.
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Anna Gutman (Boros) visits her rescuer Dr. Mohamed Helmy in 1968
PhotoAnna Gutman (Boros) (left) and her daughter, Carla (second from left), visit with Dr. Mohamed Helmy (second from right) and his wife, Emmi (right), in Berlin in 1968. Dr. Helmy hid Gutman in his home for the duration of World War II.
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Anna Gutman (Boros) visits her rescuer Dr. Mohamed Helmy in 1980
PhotoAnna Gutman (Boros) (seated, center), her daughter, and son-in-law visit Dr. Mohamed Helmy (seated, left) and his wife, Emmi (seated, right), in Berlin in 1980. Dr. Helmy hid Gutman in his home for the duration of World War II.
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Hitler Abolishes the Office of President
Timeline EventAugust 19, 1934. On this date, Hitler abolished the office of President and declares himself as Führer, thus becoming the absolute dictator of Germany.
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Explosion of the SS Patria
Timeline EventNovember 25, 1940. On this date, Egon Weiss survived the explosion of the SS Patria, which was carrying 1,800 Jewish refugees.
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Johann Niemann at the Bernburg "euthanasia" center
PhotoStaff member Johann Niemann in his room at the Bernburg "euthanasia" center. For the picture, he turned his family photo on the bedside table in the direction of the photographer. Niemann later became the deputy commandant of Sobibor, one of three "Operation Reinhard" killing centers.
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Front Page of the Nazi Newspaper, "Der Stuermer"
PhotoIn February 1929, the Nazi newspaper "Der Stuermer" depicted a caricature of Magnus Hirschfeld. The Nazi Party attacked Dr. Hirschfeld for his ideas about sex, sexuality, and gender, as well as his Jewish ancestry.
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Martin Bormann
ArticleMartin Bormann, close assistant to Adolf Hitler, furthered an array of Nazi policies. He was tried in absentia during the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.
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Life After the Holocaust: Norman Salsitz
ArticleAfter WWII and the fall of the Nazi regime, Holocaust survivors faced the daunting task of rebuilding their lives. Listen to Norman Salsitz's story.
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Gerd Jacob Zwienicki
ID CardGerd was the eldest of four children. His father, Josef, had left Ukraine in 1913 and opened a bicycle sales and repair shop in Bremen. His mother, Selma, was descended from a distinguished Jewish family and had been a kindergarten teacher and a bookkeeper for a large firm. As a child, Gerd experienced the hardships of the Depression and witnessed the violent street fights between the Nazis and their political opponents, the Communists and Socialists. 1933–39: When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Gerd…
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African Americans in Nazi Germany
ArticleLearn about African Americans' experiences in Nazi Germany before and during World War II.
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The Sicherheitsdienst (SD)
ArticleThe Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service, SD) was a Nazi intelligence agency. Ideologically radical and part of the SS, it was a key perpetrator of the Holocaust.
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The British Policy of Appeasement toward Hitler and Nazi Germany
ArticleIn the 1930s, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and the British government pursued a policy of appeasement towards Nazi Germany to avoid war. Learn more.
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Moniek Rozen
ID CardOne of 12 children, Moniek grew up in Dabrowa Gornicza, an industrial town in western Poland. His father, Jacob, owned a general store, which he was forced to close in 1938 as the result of a boycott by local antisemites. Moniek attended both public and Jewish schools, and his father hoped that one day he would become a rabbi. 1933–39: On September 1, 1939, Moniek was awakened by the sounds of airplanes flying overhead as German forces invaded Poland. As the war drew closer, Moniek fled eastward, but…
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Marthijn Wijnberg
ID CardWhen Marthijn was 10, his religious Jewish family moved from Groningen to the town of Zwolle. There, his parents ran the only kosher hotel in the region. The Wijnbergs had two other sons and a daughter. All of the children attended Dutch public schools, and four afternoons a week they also went to religious school to study Jewish history, Hebrew and the Bible. 1933-39: Marthijn could play almost any instrument, including piano, saxophone and accordion. Sometimes each of his brothers would pick up an…
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Andras Muhlrad
ID CardThe second of two children, Andras was born to Jewish parents living in a suburb of Budapest. His father was a pharmacist. The Muhlrads lived in a large house with Andras' grandfather and aunts. As a toddler, Andras often played with his older sister, Eva, and their cousins in the big yard behind their home. 1933-39: Andras was 4 when his family moved to their own apartment. It was 1936 when he began primary school and Hitler had already been in power in Nazi Germany for three years. At night his father…
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Wolfgang Lachman
ID CardWolfgang was the only son of observant Jewish parents living in Berlin. Though trained as a mechanical engineer, Wolfgang's father ran a wholesale kerchief and handkerchief business that he had taken over from his father-in-law. Wolfgang's family lived in an apartment above the business. They enjoyed vacationing at their country home in Neuenhagen, a suburb of Berlin. 1933-39: Wolfgang began school when he was 5; that year Hitler was named leader of Germany. Every morning they had to sing three songs: the…
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Marcus Fass
ID CardMarcus, known to his family as Moniek, was one of three children born to a Jewish family in the Polish town of Ulanow. His father worked as a tailor. Ulanow's Jewish community had many of its own organizations and maintained a large library. From the age of 3, Moniek attended a religious school. He started public school when he was 7. 1933-39: In 1935 Moniek's father left for America to find a job so that his family could later join him. He sent money to them while they waited for their emigration papers.…
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Henryk Lubelski
ID CardHenryk was raised in a religious Jewish family. His father was a cantor, and his parents placed an emphasis on education. In 1916 the Lubelskis moved to Rawicz, a town in German-occupied Poland. Henryk was first in his class in secondary school, where he also excelled in wrestling and soccer. After graduating, Henryk became an apprentice in a business. 1933-39: In 1935 Henryk's father secured a good position in the city of Katowice. There, Henryk worked in the sausage business. Since Katowice was close to…
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Elias (Elya) Grosmann
ID CardElias was born in a small town in the hill country of northeastern Slovakia. His family was Jewish, and he grew up in a religious home in which both Yiddish and Hungarian were spoken. His father was a peddler and his mother ran a small general store. Besides attending public schools, Elias received a formal Jewish education and attended Medzilaborce's rabbinical academy. 1933-39: The townspeople were mostly Jewish and worried about Nazi Germany. The German annexation of Austria in March 1938 alarmed them.…
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Chaim Werzbe
ID CardChaim was raised in a Yiddish-speaking, religious Jewish family in Sokolow Podlaski, a manufacturing town in central Poland with a large Jewish community of about 5,000. The economic activities of most of the townspeople were closely tied to those of nearby Warsaw and surrounding farming communities. As a young man, Chaim liked to play chess and was active in a local Zionist organization. 1933-39: Chaim made a living in the grain business. After settling down, he married a widow who was older than he and…
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Fritz Alexander Rosenberg
ID CardFritz was one of three sons born to a Jewish family in the university city of Goettingen, where the Rosenbergs had lived since the 1600s. His father owned a linen factory. Fritz worked as a salesman there, and later he and his brothers inherited the business. In 1913 Fritz married Else Herz. By the early 1920s they had two sons and a daughter. 1933-39: In 1933 the Nazis came to power in Germany. A year later the Rosenbergs' factory was seized and three Nazis came to the family's home. An officer set a gun…
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Gregor Wohlfahrt
ID CardGregor was born in a village in the part of Austria known as Carinthia. During World War I, he served in the Austro-Hungarian army and was wounded. Raised a Catholic, Gregor and his wife became Jehovah's Witnesses during the late 1920s. Gregor supported his wife and six children by working as a farmer and quarryman. 1933-39: The Austrian government banned Jehovah's Witness missionary work in 1936. Gregor was accused of peddling without a license and briefly jailed. When Germany annexed Austria in 1938,…
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Pinchas Gerszonowicz
ID CardPinchas was born into a large family living in the town of Miechow in south central Poland. His father was a machinist and locksmith. Pinchas spent long days studying, either learning Hebrew in the Jewish school or taking general subjects at the public school. He belonged to the Zionist youth organization, Ha Shomer ha-Tsa'ir, and played left wing for a Jewish soccer team. 1933-39: At 13 Pinchas finished school and started work as an apprentice machinist and blacksmith in a building contractor's shop.…
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Wilek Loew
ID CardWilek was the son of Jewish parents living in Lvov, a large city in southeastern Poland. His family owned and operated a honeywine winery. Although they lived amongst Poles and Ukrainians, Wilek's family spoke Hebrew, German and Polish at home and were among Lvov's Jewish intelligentsia. When Wilek was 4, his father died of a heart attack. 1933-39: Jews were often discriminated against in Poland. They found it hard to gain access to schools and jobs. In 1939 Wilek managed to pass the entrance exam and…
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Ernest G. Heppner
ID CardErnest was one of three children born to a Jewish family in the commercial city of Breslau, which had one of the largest Jewish communities in Germany. His father, a World War I veteran, owned a factory that made matzah, the unleavened bread used during the Jewish holiday of Passover. Ernest was 12 when Hitler took power in 1933. 1933-39: Ernest often got in trouble at school because people called him names. "Christ-killer" and "your father kills Christian babies for Passover" were common taunts. Many…
