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Children's Diaries during the Holocaust
ArticleOf the millions of children who suffered persecution at the hands of the Nazis and their Axis partners, a small number wrote diaries and journals that have survived.
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Hodonín U Kunštátu (Hodonín bei Kunstadt) (Roma camp)
ArticleIn March 1942, the Hodonin camp was classified as a camp for Roma. It was a transfer station during deportation to Auschwitz-Birkenau. Learn about the camp and its history.
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Irene Hizme describes being a poster child for Rescue Children
Oral HistoryIrene and Rene were born Renate and Rene Guttmann. The family moved to Prague shortly after the twins' birth, where they were living when the Germans occupied Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939. A few months later, uniformed Germans arrested their father. Decades later, Irene and Rene learned that he was killed at the Auschwitz camp in December 1941. Irene, Rene, and their mother were deported to the Theresienstadt ghetto, and later to the Auschwitz camp. At Auschwitz, the twins were separated and subjected…
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Combating Holocaust Denial: Evidence of the Holocaust presented at Nuremberg
ArticleAt the Nuremberg trials, Allied prosecutors submitted documentation left by the Nazi state itself. This evidence is a lasting refutation of attempts to deny the Holocaust.
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Lublin/Majdanek Concentration Camp: Conditions
ArticleIn 1940, the Nazis established Lublin (Majdanek) concentration camp in Lublin, Poland. Learn more about camp conditions.
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Lackenbach (Roma internment and transit camp)
ArticleThe Lackenbach internment and transit camp for Roma, located in what had been eastern Austria, was a departure point for deportations to Lodz and Auschwitz.
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Hinda Chilewicz
ID CardHinda was the eldest of three children in a comfortable middle class Jewish family. Her father owned a textile business in Sosnowiec and her mother attended to the home. Sosnowiec in southwestern Poland had a growing Jewish community of almost 30,000 people. There was a Jewish hospital as well as religious schools. 1933–39: Hinda was just 13 years old when German troops invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Three days later, they occupied Sosnowiec and terrorized the Jewish community, killing over a…
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Hanne Hirsch Liebmann describes conditions in the Gurs camp
Oral HistoryHanne's family owned a photographic studio. In October 1940, she and other family members were deported to the Gurs camp in southern France. In September 1941, the Children's Aid Society (OSE) rescued Hanne and she hid in a children's home in Le Chambon-sur-Lignon. Her mother perished in Auschwitz. In 1943, Hanne obtained false papers and crossed into Switzerland. She married in Geneva in 1945 and had a daughter in 1946. In 1948, she arrived in the United States..
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Murray Pantirer describes the "Schindler Jews" in the Bruennlitz factory
Oral HistoryThe Germans occupied Krakow in 1939. Murray's family was confined to the Krakow ghetto along with the rest of the Jewish population of the city. In 1942, Murray and a brother were deported for forced labor in the nearby Plaszow camp. In May 1944, his brother was transferred to Auschwitz and Murray was sent to the Gross-Rosen camp in Germany. Murray was later transferred to Bruennlitz, in the Sudetenland, as a forced laborer for German industrialist Oskar Schindler. Schindler helped the Jews who worked for…
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William (Bill) Lowenberg describes conditions in the Westerbork camp in the Netherlands
Oral HistoryAs a boy, Bill attended school in Burgsteinfurt, a German town near the Dutch border. After the Nazis came to power in Germany in January 1933, Bill experienced increasing antisemitism and was once attacked on his way to Hebrew school by a boy who threw a knife at him. In 1936, he and his family left Germany for the Netherlands, where they had relatives and thought they would be safe. However, after Germany invaded the Netherlands in May 1940, antisemitic legislation--including the order to wear the Jewish…
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Madeline Deutsch describes her postwar experiences
Oral HistoryMadeline was born into a middle class family in an area of Czechoslovakia that was annexed by Hungary in 1938-1939. Her father worked out of their home and her mother was a homemaker. Madeline attended high school. In April 1944 her family was forced into a Hungarian ghetto. The family lived in the ghetto for two weeks before being transported to Auschwitz. Madeline and her mother were separated from her father and older brother. Neither her father nor brother survived the war. A week after arriving in…
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SS and the Camp System
ArticleIn 1933-1934, the SS seized control of the Nazi camp system. Learn more about the persecution, forced labor, and murder that occurred under SS camp rule.
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SS and the Holocaust
ArticleLearn more about the SS and the organization’s involvement in perpetrating the Holocaust.
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Children during the Holocaust
ArticleChildren were especially vulnerable to Nazi persecution. Learn more about the fates of Jewish and non-Jewish children.
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Nazi Camps
ArticleNazi Germany and its allies established over 44,000 concentration camps and incarceration sites during the Holocaust. Read about the Nazi camp system.
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Bergen-Belsen In Depth: The Camp Complex
ArticleLearn about the sections of the Bergen-Belsen camp complex during WWII and the Holocaust until the camp's liberation by British forces in April 1945.
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Postwar Trials
ArticleEfforts to bring the perpetrators of Nazi-era crimes to justice continue into the 21st century. Learn more about postwar trials and their legacies.
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Les Milles Camp
ArticleUnder the Vichy regime, the Les Milles camp held foreign Jews before emigration or, in most cases, deportation to German concentration camps and killing centers.
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Oskar Schindler
ArticleOskar Schindler's actions to protect Jews during the Holocaust saved over 1,000 Jews from deportation. Learn more about Schindler's List.
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How Many People did the Nazis Murder?
ArticleBehind the number of victims of the Holocaust and Nazi persecution are people whose hopes and dreams were destroyed. Learn about the toll of Nazi policies.
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David Bayer
ArticleDavid Bayer lived in Kozienice, Poland. Explore his biography and learn about his experiences during World War II and the Holocaust.
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Leon Franko
ID CardLeon was born to a large, Ladino-speaking, Sephardic-Jewish family. The Frankos lived in a large house in ethnically diverse Bitola, a town located in the southern part of Yugoslav Macedonia, near the Greek border. Leon's father, Yiosef, was a successful fabric merchant. The Frankos' children attended Yugoslav public schools where they learned to speak Serbian. 1933-39: Upon completing his schooling, Leon became a fabric merchant in Bitola. A handsome man from a well-to-do family, Leon was popular. His…
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Marta Herman
ID CardThe younger of two daughters, Marta was raised by Hungarian-speaking Jewish parents in Kosice, a city in Slovakia. Marta attended a Jewish elementary school. Her father ran a small grocery store. 1933-39: After Marta finished elementary school, she began secondary school. The language of instruction was Slovak and Jews faced no discrimination until November 1938 when Hungarian troops marched into southern Slovakia. With Germany's blessing, Kosice became part of Hungary and was renamed Kassa. Their new…
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A page from the Fenyves family cookbook
ArtifactSteven Fenves (born Fenyves) and his family lived in Subotica, Yugoslavia. His father, Lajos, managed a publishing house and his mother, Klári (Klara), was a graphic artist. In April 1941, Subotica fell under Hungarian occupation. Until May 1944, the Fenyveses lived in one corner of their apartment while Hungarian officers took over the rest of the family’s home. In March 1944, Germany occupied Hungary. In April, Lajos was deported to the Auschwitz camp in German-occupied Poland. Steven, his sister…
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Another page from the Fenyves family cookbook
ArtifactSteven Fenves (born Fenyves) and his family lived in Subotica, Yugoslavia. His father, Lajos, managed a publishing house and his mother, Klári (Klara), was a graphic artist. In April 1941, Subotica fell under Hungarian occupation. Until May 1944, the Fenyveses lived in one corner of their apartment while Hungarian officers took over the rest of the family’s home. In March 1944, Germany occupied Hungary. In April, Lajos was deported to the Auschwitz camp in German-occupied Poland. Steven, his sister…
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Additional page from the Fenyves family cookbook
ArtifactSteven Fenves (born Fenyves) and his family lived in Subotica, Yugoslavia. His father, Lajos, managed a publishing house and his mother, Klári (Klara), was a graphic artist. In April 1941, Subotica fell under Hungarian occupation. Until May 1944, the Fenyveses lived in one corner of their apartment while Hungarian officers took over the rest of the family’s home. In March 1944, Germany occupied Hungary. In April, Lajos was deported to the Auschwitz camp in German-occupied Poland. Steven, his sister…
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Beads used by a Dutch Jewish girl in hiding
ArtifactThese tiny black, white, gold, and clear glass beads were used by Rachel “Chelly” de Groot from November 1942 to April 1944 and recovered by her brother Louis after the war. Chelly used the beads to make handicrafts. On November 16, 1942, Chelly, then 15, Louis, 13, and their parents Meijer and Sophia left Arnhem and went into hiding after the Dutch police warned them of a raid. Meijer and Sophia hid in Amsterdam while Chelly and Louis moved around to different locations. In summer or fall 1943,…
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Lea Ofner-Szemere
ID CardLea was born in the city of Sombor in northeastern Yugoslavia. When she was 3 years old, her parents divorced and she moved to Vienna with her mother, who taught English and French to Austrian children. Lea enjoyed living in Vienna as a child. 1933-39: Lea returned to Sombor almost every year to visit her mother's relatives. There, she became reacquainted with her younger half-sister, Julia, and her older half-brother, Francis, and would miss them when she returned to Vienna. In 1938, the Germans annexed…
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Sam Spiegel describes hiding in woods before liberation
Oral HistoryIn 1942, Sam was forced into a ghetto in his hometown and assigned to work in a munitions factory. In 1944 he was transported to Auschwitz and then forced to work in a train factory. He survived eight days on a death march after the evacuation of Auschwitz by the Nazis. He was liberated by Soviet units in January 1945. He lived in a displaced persons camp in Germany where worked for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. In 1947, he immigrated to the United States.
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Marcelle Burakowski with her eight-year-old twin sisters, Berthe and Jenny
PhotoMarcelle Bock (born Marcelle Burakowski) was born in 1931. She was the oldest of three girls. She had twin sisters, two years younger than herself, named Berthe and Jenny. Her father worked as a tailor of men's overcoats. Marcelle is ten years old in this photograph. Her sisters are eight years old. Marcelle, her mother, and sisters were arrested during the roundup of July 16-17, 1942, and taken to the Vélodrome d'Hiver in Paris, France. Marcelle managed to escape during transit from…
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Adolf Eichmann: Key Dates
ArticleAdolf Eichmann was a key figure in implementing the “Final Solution,” the Nazi plan to kill Europe's Jews. Learn more through key dates and events.
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Jasenovac
ArticleJasenovac camp complex operated between 1941-1945 in the so-called Independent State of Croatia. Learn more about conditions and prisoners at Jasenovac.
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1945: Key Dates
ArticleExplore a timeline of key events during 1945 in the history of Nazi Germany, World War II, the Holocaust, and liberation and the aftermath of the Holocaust.
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Théophile Larue
PhotoFrench policeman Théophile Larue, who warned his Jewish neighbors of an upcoming roundup.
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Janowska - Photographs
Media EssayJanowska was a forced labor camp for Jews in German-occupied Poland. It also served as a transit camp during the mass deportations of Polish Jews to the killing centers in 1942. Jews underwent a selection process in Janowska similar to that used a...
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Mechelen - Maps
Media EssayIn the summer of 1942, the Germans made preparations to deport the Jews of Belgium. They converted military barracks in the city of Mechelen into a transit camp. Between August 4, 1942, and July 31, 1944, a total of 28 trains carrying 25,257 Jews left Mechelen for German-occupied Poland; most of them went to Auschwitz-Birkenau. This figure represented more than half of the Belgian Jews murdered during the Holocaust.
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Swedish protective document
DocumentProtective document issued to a Jewish woman by the Swedish embassy in Budapest, Hungary, in 1944. Such documents protected the bearer from immediate deportation by the Germans to the Auschwitz killing center in occupied Poland. The "W" in the lower left corner indicates that Raoul Wallenberg initialed the document.
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Postwar testimony of Rudolf Höss
ArtifactA page from the transcript of the testimony given by Rudolf Höss at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. At the trial, Höss testified about the gassing of Jews of Auschwitz, where he was commandant. He responded in German and communicated through a translator. Testimony dated April 2, 1946.
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Knife made by Yona Wygocka Dickmann
ArtifactYona Wygocka Dickmann fashioned this jackknife from aluminum and part of a saw after the SS transferred her from Auschwitz to forced labor at an airplane factory in Freiburg, Germany, in November 1944. She used the knife to extend her daily ration of bread by cutting it in half.
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Romani (Gypsy) woman's skirt
ArtifactThis taffeta and cotton skirt dates from the 1920s. It belonged to a Romani (Gypsy) woman who was born in Frankfurt, Germany, and who lived in Germany before the war. She was arrested by the Nazis and interned in the Auschwitz, Ravensbrück, Mauthausen, and Bergen-Belsen camps. She died in Bergen-Belsen in March 1945, shortly before the camp's liberation. Her husband and two of her six children were also killed in the camps.
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Fritz and Ida Lang, Jewish proprietors of a dry goods store in Germany
PhotoFritz and Ida Lang, Jewish proprietors of a dry goods store in Lambsheim, posed for this picture around 1934. In the early 1940s, Nazi authorities deported the Langs and their young daughter, Freya, to detention camps in France. Ida died after deportation to Auschwitz. Fritz survived and reunited with his daughter in 1946. Lambsheim, Germany, ca. 1934.
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Mother and infant daughter in Germany
PhotoIda Baehr Lang holding her infant daughter, Freya Karoline, in Lambsheim. Ida died in the mid-1940s after deportation to Auschwitz. Freya survived in hiding in France and reunited with her father in 1946. Lambsheim, Germany, ca. 1934.
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Section of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum's main exhibition
PhotoView of the photo mural of a selection at Auschwitz-Birkenau taken through the open railcar on the third floor of the Permanent Exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Washington, DC, 1993–95.
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Sisters Eva and Liane Münzer
PhotoDenunciations of Jews to German authorities came from a variety of different sources, sometimes even from their "protectors." In 1944, Eva and Liane Münzer (pictured here) were reported to the police as a result of a domestic fight between their rescuers. The irate husband denounced his wife and the two Jewish girls. The Münzer sisters were sent to Auschwitz and killed.
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Portrait of Ita Guttman with her twin children Rene and Renate
Photo1942 portrait of Ita Guttman with her twin children Rene and Renate. When the twins were very young, the family moved to Prague. In the fall of 1941 the Germans arrested Ita's husband, Herbert. Subsequently, the twins and their mother were deported to Theresienstadt, and from there, to Auschwitz.
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1937 studio portrait of Suri and Ari Deutsch
PhotoPrewar studio portrait in Sighet of Jewish siblings Suri and Ari Deutsch, both of whom died in the Holocaust. This photograph comes from the album of their cousin, Rosalia Dratler Roiter. Rosalia was deported to and died at Auschwitz. Sighet, Romania, 1937.
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Elsa Eisner wearing the compulsory Jewish badge in Prague
PhotoElsa Eisner, marked with a Jewish badge, walks down a street in Prague. She, her mother, twin sister and other members of the family were deported to Auschwitz in July 1942. Prague, Czechoslovakia, ca. 1941.
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1943 still life of a violin and sheet of music behind prison bars by Bedrich Fritta
Photo1943 still life of a violin and sheet of music behind prison bars by Bedrich Fritta (1909–1945). Fritta was a Czech Jewish artist who created drawings and paintings depicting conditions in the Theresienstadt camp-ghetto. He was deported to Auschwitz in October 1944; he died there a week after his arrival.
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Painting of the Vltava River in Prague by Theresienstadt prisoner Bedrich Fritta
Photo1943 painting of the Vltava River in Prague created from a photograph by Bedrich Fritta when he was imprisoned in Theresienstadt. Fritta (1909-1945) was a Czech Jewish artist who created drawings and paintings depicting conditions in the Theresienstadt camp-ghetto. Fritta was deported to Auschwitz in October 1944. He died there a week after his arrival.
