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Frances Perkins was FDR's secretary of labor. Learn about her role in the rescue of European Jews whose lives were threatened by the Nazi regime.
More than one thousand unaccompanied refugee children fleeing Nazi persecution arrived in the United States between 1933 and 1945. Learn more
Nazi Germany’s territorial expansion and the radicalization of Nazi anti-Jewish policies triggered a mass exodus. Learn about the US and the refugee crisis of 1938–41.
How did the United States respond to the Holocaust and World War II? Start learning today.
Learn about responses in the United States to reports about Nazi anti-Jewish policies and violence against Jews from 1933–37.
With help from allies and collaborators, German authorities deported Jews from across Europe to killing centers. The vast majority were gassed almost immediately after their arrival in the killing centers.
Explore Estelle Laughlin’s biography and learn about her experiences during the Warsaw ghetto uprising.
Explore Erika Eckstut's biography and learn about the difficulties and dangers she faced in the Czernowitz ghetto.
Explore Manya Friedmann’s biography and listen to her describe her experiences following the liberation of Auschwitz.
The Nazi regime’s Nuremberg Race Laws of September 1935 made Jews legally different from their non-Jewish neighbors. The laws were the foundation for future antisemitic measures .
The Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service, SD) was a Nazi intelligence agency. Ideologically radical and part of the SS, it was a key perpetrator of the Holocaust.
An underground courier for the Polish government-in-exile, Jan Karski was one of the first to deliver eyewitness accounts of the Holocaust to Allied leaders.
The 1936 Olympics in Berlin under Adolf Hitler's Nazi dictatorship were more than just a worldwide sporting event, they were also a show of Nazi propaganda.
Nazi authorities established the Lodz ghetto in 1940. Learn about living conditions and forced labor in the ghetto, as well as deportations to and from there.
The Germans established an internment camp at Drancy in August 1941. The following summer, Drancy became the main transit camp for deportations of Jews from France.
The Burmese military has targeted the Rohingya people because of their ethnic and religious identity. The military’s actions constitute genocide and crimes against humanity. Learn more
Almost one third of the six million Holocaust victims were murdered in mass shootings.
"We Will Never Die" was a 1943 musical stage performance that raised awareness among Americans about the murder of European Jews. Learn more.
The Security Police (Sicherheitspolizei, SiPo) was a German police organization created by Heinrich Himmler. Learn about its origin and role in the Holocaust.
Jozef Tiso was a Slovak politician and a Roman Catholic priest. From 1939 to 1945, he was the president of the Slovak Republic, one of Nazi Germany’s allies.
Léon Degrelle was an extreme right-wing Belgian politician and Nazi collaborator. After the war, he continued to spread pro-Nazi propaganda for decades. Learn more.
During World War II, Slovene general Leon Rupnik collaborated with the forces of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Rupnik was appointed president of the Provincial Government of the German-occupied Province of Ljubljana in 1943. He was convicted of treason and executed in 1946. In 2020, his sentence was annulled on a technicality.
Robert Ritter was a German doctor whose work helped drive the development of the Nazi regime’s anti-Romani policies of persecution and genocide.
A leading researcher of sex, sexuality, and gender, German Jewish doctor Magnus Hirschfeld was forced to live in exile after the Nazi rise to power.
Often referred to as the “eastern front,” the German-Soviet theater of war was the largest and deadliest of World War II. Learn more about the background and key events.
Young people's diaries capture some of the most heartbreaking experiences of the Holocaust. Learn about the diary and experiences of David Sierakowiak.
A diagram showing the medical chain of command in the Third Reich, drawn up as evidence for the Doctors Trial. Nuremberg, Germany, December 1946.
Military entry permit allowing Jadwiga Dzido to travel through occupied Germany to appear as a witness in the Medical Case trial at Nuremberg. 1946.
Reverse side of a military entry permit allowing Jadwiga Dzido to travel through occupied Germany to appear as a witness in the Medical Case trial at Nuremberg. 1946.
In this London Times article, reporter Philip Graves compared passages from Maurice Joly’s Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu (1864) side-by-side with the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in order to prove that the Protocols was plagiarized. Other investigations revealed that one chapter of a Prussian novel, Hermann Goedsche’s Biarritz (1868), also “inspired” the Protocols. Times (London), August 17, 1921.
In this London Times article, reporter Philip Graves compared passages from Maurice Joly’s Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu (1864) side-by-side with the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in order to prove that the Protocols was plagiarized. Other investigations revealed that one chapter of a Prussian novel, Hermann Goedsche’s Biarritz (1868), also “inspired” the Protocols. Times (London), August 17, 1921.
In this London Times article, reporter Philip Graves compared passages from Maurice Joly’s Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu (1864) side-by-side with the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in order to prove that the Protocols was plagiarized. Other investigations revealed that one chapter of a Prussian novel, Hermann Goedsche’s Biarritz (1868), also “inspired” the Protocols. Times (London), August 17, 1921.
In this London Times article, reporter Philip Graves compared passages from Maurice Joly’s Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu (1864) side-by-side with the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in order to prove that the Protocols was plagiarized. Other investigations revealed that one chapter of a Prussian novel, Hermann Goedsche’s Biarritz (1868), also “inspired” the Protocols. Times (London), August 17, 1921.
In this London Times article, reporter Philip Graves compared passages from Maurice Joly’s Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu (1864) side-by-side with the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in order to prove that the Protocols was plagiarized. Other investigations revealed that one chapter of a Prussian novel, Hermann Goedsche’s Biarritz (1868), also “inspired” the Protocols. Times (London), August 17, 1921.
Cover of a mimeographed program booklet distributed at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.
Floor plan of the courtroom. The plan appeared in a mimeographed program booklet distributed at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. 1945.
First page of a list of defendants at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. This material appears in a mimeographed program booklet distributed at the IMT. This page includes: Hermann Göring, Rudolf Hess, Joachim von Ribbentrop, and Alfred Rosenberg, along with brief biographical information for each.
Third page of a list of defendants at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. This material appears in a mimeographed program booklet distributed at the IMT. This page includes: Julius Streicher, Wilhelm Keitel, Walter Funk, and Hjalmar Schacht., along with brief biographical information for each.
Fourth page of a list of defendants at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. This material appears in a mimeographed program booklet distributed at the IMT. This page includes: Hjalmar Schacht, Karl Dönitz, Baldur von Schirach, Fritz Sauckel, and Albert Speer, along with brief biographical information for each.
Fifth page of a list of defendants at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. This material appears in a mimeographed program booklet distributed at the IMT. This page includes: Albert Speer, Franz von Papen, Alfred Jodl, Konstantin von Neurath, Artur Seyss-Inquart, Erich Raeder, and Hans Fritzsche, along with brief biographical information for each.
Pass for the visitors' gallery at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. Such passes were often shared among several people as they took turns observing the historic legal proceedings.
An insert prepared for American soldiers. This diagram, published in the overseas edition of "Newsmap for the Armed Forces," explains the indictment against the Nuremberg defendants. 1945.
Second page of a list of defendants at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. This material appears in a mimeographed program booklet distributed at the IMT. This page includes: Hans Frank, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, and Wilhelm Frick, along with brief biographical information for each.
Sorle and Shalomis Gorfinkel presented this card to their parents on the occasion of Rosh Hashanah 5704, the Jewish New Year 1943. The Gorfinkel family was part of the Mir Yeshiva community in Shanghai.
Wooden sandals worn by a member of the Mir Yeshiva in Shanghai. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
Goblets used in Shanghai by the Caspary family for blessings (Kiddush) over wine on the Sabbath or Jewish holidays. The Orthodox Casparys ran a kosher restaurant frequented by yeshiva students from Poland. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
A page from the Mishneh Torah, one of many texts reprinted in Shanghai during the war. Yeshiva students spent part of each day listening to teachers lecture on the Talmud, the collection of ancient Rabbinic writings and commentaries composed of the Mishnah and the Gemara that form the basis of religious authority in Judaism. During the rest of the day, students paired up to review selections from the lecture. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
David Bloch, untitled woodblock print with watercolor, ca. 1945. Bloch, a German Jewish refugee, depicted typical shops in "Little Vienna," as Chusan Road in Hongkew became known. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
Boy Scout handmade badges worn by German-Jewish refugee boys. British expatriates had transplanted the Boy Scouts to Shanghai before the refugees' arrival. Unlike most of the Polish Jewish refugees, German and Austrian Jews usually went to Shanghai as families, and enrollment in schools and youth organizations in the International Settlement grew rapidly. [From the USHMM special exhibition Flight and Rescue.]
Entry pass to the court building at the International Military Tribunal. This pass was issued to a U.S. military guard.
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